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==Non-neologisms== | ==Non-neologisms== | ||
===Refeminization === | ===Refeminization === | ||
Prior to the 17th century, French, like Italian, Spanish, and other Romance languages, utilized feminine inflections to distinguish female professionals. However, for a range of reasons — both societal, such as misogyny,<ref name=":1">Becquelin, H. (no data): ''Langage en tout genre. Argument historique''. Article on non discriminating language. University of Neuchâtel. Online at: https://www.unine.ch/epicene/home/pourquoi/argument-historique.html (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref><ref name=":12">Viennot, E. (2023): ''Pour un langage non sexiste ! Les accords égalitaires en français''. Online at: https://www.elianeviennot.fr/Langue-accords.html (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref> and linguistic<ref name=":2">Moreau, M.-L. (2019): L’accord de proximité dans l’écriture inclusive. Peut-on utiliser n’importe quel argument ? In: Dister, A./ Piron, S. (eds.): ''Les discours de référence sur la langue française (Presses de l’Université Saint-Louis)'', 351–378. 10.4000/books.pusl.26517.</ref>, as French was being standardized and dialect speakers were expected to learn French — grammarians ensured that these feminine designations were effectively removed from the language.<ref name=":1" /> | Prior to the 17th century, French, like Italian, Spanish, and other Romance languages, utilized feminine inflections to distinguish female and male professionals. However, for a range of reasons — both societal, such as misogyny,<ref name=":1">Becquelin, H. (no data): ''Langage en tout genre. Argument historique''. Article on non discriminating language. University of Neuchâtel. Online at: https://www.unine.ch/epicene/home/pourquoi/argument-historique.html (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref><ref name=":12">Viennot, E. (2023): ''Pour un langage non sexiste ! Les accords égalitaires en français''. Online at: https://www.elianeviennot.fr/Langue-accords.html (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref> and linguistic<ref name=":2">Moreau, M.-L. (2019): L’accord de proximité dans l’écriture inclusive. Peut-on utiliser n’importe quel argument ? In: Dister, A./ Piron, S. (eds.): ''Les discours de référence sur la langue française (Presses de l’Université Saint-Louis)'', 351–378. 10.4000/books.pusl.26517.</ref>, as French was being standardized and dialect speakers were expected to learn French — grammarians ensured that these feminine designations were effectively removed from the language.<ref name=":1" /> | ||
Today, many people refer to the contemporary introduction of feminine designations as 'feminization,' believing that these occupational titles are newly coined terms. However, this is not the case, as they are being revived from an earlier iteration of the French language, making 'refeminization'<ref name=":0">Divergenres (2021): ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive''. Québec. Online at: https://divergenres.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/guide-grammaireinclusive-final.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> a more accurate term. | Today, many people refer to the contemporary introduction of feminine designations as 'feminization,' believing that these occupational titles are newly coined terms. However, this is not the case, as they are being revived from an earlier iteration of the French language, making 'refeminization'<ref name=":0">Divergenres (2021): ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive''. Québec. Online at: https://divergenres.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/guide-grammaireinclusive-final.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> a more accurate term. | ||
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For instance, « <u>Les élèves</u> apprennent leur leçon. »; « <u>L'enfant</u> regarde la télévision. »; « <u>Les juges</u> ont pris leur décision. ». As singular articles indicate gender ('la' and 'le'), this technique works best with plural forms. However, it also works with singular forms if the noun begins with a vowel, because the article automatically becomes "l'...," which does not express gender. A drawback is that there are not epicene occupational titles for all professions or functions.<ref name=":0" /> | For instance, « <u>Les élèves</u> apprennent leur leçon. »; « <u>L'enfant</u> regarde la télévision. »; « <u>Les juges</u> ont pris leur décision. ». As singular articles indicate gender ('la' and 'le'), this technique works best with plural forms. However, it also works with singular forms if the noun begins with a vowel, because the article automatically becomes "l'...," which does not express gender. A drawback is that there are not epicene occupational titles for all professions or functions.<ref name=":0" /> | ||
In certain Swiss-French varieties, as in the canton of Vaud, masculine and feminine words ending in '-é' resp. '-ée' are pronounced differently (i. e. 'une employée' [ynɑ̃plwaj<u>e:</u>]/[ynɑ̃plwaj<u>e:j</u>] ''versus'' 'un employé' [ɛ̃nɑ̃plwaj<u>e</u>]/[œ̃nɑ̃plwaj<u>e</u>]). However, this linguistically conservative pronunciation is becoming increasingly marginal: it is primarily confined to Switzerland, | In certain Swiss-French varieties, as in the canton of Vaud, masculine and feminine words ending in '-é' resp. '-ée' are pronounced differently (i. e. 'une employée' [ynɑ̃plwaj<u>e:</u>]/[ynɑ̃plwaj<u>e:j</u>] ''versus'' 'un employé' [ɛ̃nɑ̃plwaj<u>e</u>]/[œ̃nɑ̃plwaj<u>e</u>]). However, this linguistically conservative pronunciation is becoming increasingly marginal: it is primarily confined to Switzerland and, in major cities and among younger generations, the pronunciation is gradually converging with the standard French norm, meaning that the distinction between /e/ and /e:/ (or /e:j/, remnant from Franco-Provençal dialects, i. e. Patois, spoken in the region before linguistic homogenization) is being neutralized, resulting in a single phoneme /e/ and causing 'employé' and 'employée' to be pronounced identically. As a result, here, these words are considered orally epicene. | ||
=== | === Monogender epicene nouns and collective terms === | ||
The table below shows gendered language on the left and neutral — i.e. grammatical gender that has nothing to do with biological sex or gender identity — language on the right. | The table below shows gendered language on the left and neutral — i.e. grammatical gender that has nothing to do with biological sex or gender identity — language on the right. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ | |+Collective terms<ref name=":11" /> | ||
!Inclusive gendered language | !Inclusive gendered language | ||
!Inclusive neutral language | !Inclusive neutral language | ||
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|} | |} | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ | |+Monogender (epicene) nouns<ref name=":11" /> | ||
!Explicit binary gender | !Explicit binary gender | ||
!Grammatically fixed gender | !Grammatically fixed gender | ||
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====Subject pronouns==== | ====Subject pronouns==== | ||
French only distinguishes gender in the third-person singular (cf. 'elle' and 'il'). Up until the 12th century, French knew the neutral subject pronoun 'el'/'al'.<ref>Marchello-Nizia, C. (1989): Le neutre et l’impersonnel. In: ''Linx'' ''21'', 173–179. 10.3406/linx.1989.1139.</ref> Today, 'el' cannot be reintroduced from Old French as it would sound identical to 'elle', the current feminin subject pronoun. As for 'al', it sounds like 'elle' in spoken Canadian French.<ref name=":5">Ashley, F. (2019): Les personnes non-binaires en français : une perspective concernée et militante. In: ''H-France Salon'' ''11''(14).</ref> It could, however, still be a viable option for the rest of the Francophone community.<ref name=":13">Alpheratz (2018): ''Genre neutre.TABLEAUX RÉCAPITULATIFS de mots de genre neutre (extraits)''. Online at: https://www.alpheratz.fr/linguistique/genre-neutre/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> Nowadays, according to the ''Guide de rédaction inclusive'' (2021:14) from the Laval University,<ref name=":11">Université Laval (2021): ''Guide de rédaction inclusive''. Online at: https://www.ulaval.ca/sites/default/files/EDI/Guide_redaction_inclusive_DC_UL.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> the ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive'' (2021:5) from Divergenres,<ref name=":0" /> the ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif'' (2018) from La vie en Queer,<ref name=":6">La vie en Queer (2018): ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif''. Online at: https://lavieenqueer.wordpress.com/2018/07/26/petit-dico-de-francais-neutre-inclusif/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> and Wiki Trans (2019),<ref name=":7">Wiki Trans (2019): ''Comment parler d'une personne non binaire ?'' Online at: https://wikitrans.co/2019/12/25/comment-parler-dune-personne-non-binaire/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> the most widely adopted subject (neo)pronoun is 'iel'. It was added to the prestigious dictionary ''Le Robert'' in 2021.<ref>Radio Télévision Suisse (2021): ''L'entrée du pronom "iel" dans Le Robert provoque des remous''. Online at: https://www.rts.ch/info/monde/12651159-lentree-du-pronom-iel-dans-le-robert-provoque-des-remous.html (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> Alongside 'iel', Canadian French also uses 'ille'.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> In metropolitan France, the pronoun 'al', proposed by linguist Alpheratz in their book ''Grammaire du français inclusif'' (2018) has gained some recognition. The table below presents the primary gender-neutral subject pronouns found in the French-speaking world. | French only distinguishes gender in the third-person singular (cf. 'elle' and 'il'). Up until the 12th century, French knew the neutral subject pronoun 'el'/'al'.<ref>Marchello-Nizia, C. (1989): Le neutre et l’impersonnel. In: ''Linx'' ''21'', 173–179. 10.3406/linx.1989.1139.</ref> Today, 'el' cannot be reintroduced from Old French as it would sound identical to 'elle', the current feminin subject pronoun. As for 'al', it sounds like 'elle' in spoken Canadian French.<ref name=":5">Ashley, F. (2019): Les personnes non-binaires en français : une perspective concernée et militante. In: ''H-France Salon'' ''11''(14).</ref> It could, however, still be a viable option for the rest of the Francophone community.<ref name=":13">Alpheratz (2018): ''Genre neutre.TABLEAUX RÉCAPITULATIFS de mots de genre neutre (extraits)''. Online at: https://www.alpheratz.fr/linguistique/genre-neutre/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> Nowadays, according to the ''Guide de rédaction inclusive'' (2021:14) from the Laval University,<ref name=":11">Université Laval (2021): ''Guide de rédaction inclusive''. Online at: https://www.ulaval.ca/sites/default/files/EDI/Guide_redaction_inclusive_DC_UL.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> the ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive'' (2021:5) from Divergenres,<ref name=":0" /> the ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif'' (2018) from La vie en Queer,<ref name=":6">La vie en Queer (2018): ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif''. Online at: https://lavieenqueer.wordpress.com/2018/07/26/petit-dico-de-francais-neutre-inclusif/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> and Wiki Trans (2019),<ref name=":7">Wiki Trans (2019): ''Comment parler d'une personne non binaire ?'' Online at: https://wikitrans.co/2019/12/25/comment-parler-dune-personne-non-binaire/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> the most widely adopted subject (neo)pronoun is 'iel'. It was added to the prestigious dictionary ''Le Robert'' in 2021.<ref>Radio Télévision Suisse (2021): ''L'entrée du pronom "iel" dans Le Robert provoque des remous''. Online at: https://www.rts.ch/info/monde/12651159-lentree-du-pronom-iel-dans-le-robert-provoque-des-remous.html (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> Alongside 'iel', Canadian French also uses 'ille'.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> In metropolitan France, the pronoun 'al', proposed by linguist Alpheratz in their book ''Grammaire du français inclusif'' (2018), has gained some recognition. The table below presents the primary gender-neutral subject pronouns found in the French-speaking world. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ | |+ | ||
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Tonic pronouns are also called 'autonomous' because, in opposition to clitics, they form their own prosodic unit and can stand alone in the sentence, hence their distribution is not as fixed as the clitics' one.<ref name=":8" /> There are currently two competing systems:<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Spencer-Hall, A./Gutt, B. (eds)(2021): ''Trans and Genderqueer Subjects in Medieval Hagiography''. Amsterdam University Press. DOI: 10.2307/j.ctv1ks0cj4. | Tonic pronouns are also called 'autonomous' because, in opposition to clitics, they form their own prosodic unit and can stand alone in the sentence, hence their distribution is not as fixed as the clitics' one.<ref name=":8" /> There are currently two competing systems:<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Spencer-Hall, A./Gutt, B. (eds)(2021): ''Trans and Genderqueer Subjects in Medieval Hagiography''. Amsterdam University Press. DOI: 10.2307/j.ctv1ks0cj4. | ||
French cultural and linguistic translation from Maillet C. online at: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/88291459/Maillet_Trad_Terminologie_20pour_20les_20e_3Ftudes_20trans_20et_20non_20binaire_2021-libre.pdf?1657042694=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DTerminologie_pour_les_etudes_trans_et_no.pdf&Expires=1704980549&Signature=aHUqRbpWbQ8K1jtiqQoQV6cgYM~YTcaZmgDhb8U2KTMDILHd8PhO9peeR0SLWNPOlX5RCo1E7aQcCdQzxBeyKmzPDgp9QbYArmWmHSmtOH-QZRUvrjeFeEZSp6qzmIGyZD3ebRNlOH5aMrJViI1eQ32o53Bw2ghAge~D9upEEx~KXPQe9FIUArfFQo0ylInGK9jqh-OM60Qz2pXRc8llTJ3ovtnVPiL2cu2l1mcfBODJyb~IZZZ1MPczrVu-79y1RjeMr8f5BGtMbRD5nv8jtmLex6vWmIl1svtYZTpOaFPy8LwWBa70VogboWPqfAoOL1~CDZPuhlGuDmDErNknDA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA (retrieved 11.01.2024).</ref> one consists in syncretizing (cf. analogical levelling)<ref name=":9">Campbell, L. (1998): ''Historical Linguistics. An Introduction''. First ed. Cambridge/Massachusetts: The MIT Press.</ref> clitic and tonic pronouns, following the paradigm of standard French 'elle', which equates keeping the gender-neutral subject pronoun — be it 'iel', 'ille', 'al' or 'ol', etc. — as such; the other approach, exemplified in the table below with 'iel', supports differentiating (cf. analogical extension)<ref name=":9" /> clitics from tonic pronouns, thereby aligning with the paradigm of 'il'. | French cultural and linguistic translation from Maillet C. online at: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/88291459/Maillet_Trad_Terminologie_20pour_20les_20e_3Ftudes_20trans_20et_20non_20binaire_2021-libre.pdf?1657042694=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DTerminologie_pour_les_etudes_trans_et_no.pdf&Expires=1704980549&Signature=aHUqRbpWbQ8K1jtiqQoQV6cgYM~YTcaZmgDhb8U2KTMDILHd8PhO9peeR0SLWNPOlX5RCo1E7aQcCdQzxBeyKmzPDgp9QbYArmWmHSmtOH-QZRUvrjeFeEZSp6qzmIGyZD3ebRNlOH5aMrJViI1eQ32o53Bw2ghAge~D9upEEx~KXPQe9FIUArfFQo0ylInGK9jqh-OM60Qz2pXRc8llTJ3ovtnVPiL2cu2l1mcfBODJyb~IZZZ1MPczrVu-79y1RjeMr8f5BGtMbRD5nv8jtmLex6vWmIl1svtYZTpOaFPy8LwWBa70VogboWPqfAoOL1~CDZPuhlGuDmDErNknDA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (retrieved 11.01.2024).</ref> one consists in syncretizing (cf. analogical levelling)<ref name=":9">Campbell, L. (1998): ''Historical Linguistics. An Introduction''. First ed. Cambridge/Massachusetts: The MIT Press.</ref> clitic and tonic pronouns, following the paradigm of standard French 'elle', which equates keeping the gender-neutral subject pronoun — be it 'iel', 'ille', 'al' or 'ol', etc. — as such; the other approach, exemplified in the table below with 'iel', supports differentiating (cf. analogical extension)<ref name=":9" /> clitics from tonic pronouns, thereby aligning with the paradigm of 'il'. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+Analogical extension | |+Analogical extension | ||
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|ma | |ma | ||
|''maon'' <small>[maõ]</small> | |''maon'' <small>[maõ]</small> | ||
|''man'' <small>[mɑ̃]/[man]</small>, mo, mi(ne), mian | |''man'' <small>[mɑ̃]/[man]</small>, mo, mi(ne), mian <small>[mjɑ̃]</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
!2SG | !2SG | ||
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|sa | |sa | ||
|''saon'' <small>[saõ]</small> | |''saon'' <small>[saõ]</small> | ||
|''san'' <small>[sɑ̃]/[san]</small>, so, | |''san'' <small>[sɑ̃]/[san]</small>, so, si(ne) | ||
|} | |} | ||
The possessive adjectives 'mon', 'ton', and 'son', which are generally masculine, are also used as feminine possessive adjectives when combined with a feminine noun that begins (phonetically) with a vowel: 'mon amie', 'ton employée', 'son hôtesse', etc. Therefore, there is no need to use a possessive neologism in words starting with vowels, as the masculine and feminine gender are syncretized in this context. | The possessive adjectives 'mon', 'ton', and 'son', which are generally masculine, are also used as feminine possessive adjectives when combined with a feminine noun that begins (phonetically) with a vowel: 'mon amie', 'ton employée', 'son hôtesse', etc. Therefore, there is no need to use a possessive neologism in words starting with vowels, as the masculine and feminine gender are syncretized in this context. | ||
The pronunciation [sɑ̃] of 'san' is a homophone of 'sang' ('blood'). Alpheratz proposes 'mu(n)', 'tu(n)', 'su(n)'<ref name=":13" /> as synthetic forms. However, 'tu(n)' is a homophone of the subject pronoun 'tu', and <nowiki><u> — i. e. [y] — is a linguistically marked phone</nowiki>.<ref>Rice, K. (2007): Markedness in phonology. In: ''The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology'', 79–98. 10.1017/cbo9780511486371.005.</ref><ref>Carvalho, J. (2023): From binary features to elements: Implications for markedness theory and phonological acquisition. In: ''Radical: A Journal of Phonology'' ''3'', 346–384.</ref> Alternative forms could be 'mi(ne)', 'ti(ne)', 'sine', as only the roundness parameter (cf. [y] and [i] in the IPA) distinguishes them from the original neologisms | The pronunciation [sɑ̃] of 'san' is a homophone of 'sang' ('blood'). Alpheratz proposes 'mu(n)', 'tu(n)', 'su(n)'<ref name=":13" /> as synthetic forms. However, 'tu(n)' is a homophone of the subject pronoun 'tu', and <nowiki><u> — i. e. [y] — is a linguistically marked phone</nowiki>.<ref>Rice, K. (2007): Markedness in phonology. In: ''The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology'', 79–98. 10.1017/cbo9780511486371.005.</ref><ref>Carvalho, J. (2023): From binary features to elements: Implications for markedness theory and phonological acquisition. In: ''Radical: A Journal of Phonology'' ''3'', 346–384.</ref> Alternative forms could be 'mi(ne)', 'ti(ne)', 'sine', as only the roundness parameter (cf. [y] and [i] in the IPA) distinguishes them from the original neologisms suggested by Alpheratz. 'si(ne)' could be pronounced with an '-ne' ending to avoid homophony with 'si' (i. e. 'if'). Similar-sounding possessive adjectives can be found in Spanish ('mi'), in English ('my'), in Swedish ('min', 'din', 'sin', the last one being a gender-neutral reflexive possessive pronoun),<ref>Duolingo Wiki: ''Swedish Skills. Possessives''. Online at:https://duolingo.fandom.com/wiki/Swedish_Skill:Possessives (18.12.2023).</ref> in Norwegian,<ref>Norwegian University of Science and Technology (no data): ''8 Grammar. Possessives''. Online at: https://www.ntnu.edu/now/8/grammar (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref> in Swiss-German,<ref>Klaudia, K. (2017): ''Schweizerdeutsch. Schlüssel zu den Übungen.'' Online at: https://silo.tips/download/schweizerdeutsch-schlssel-zu-den-bungen (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref> and in other Germanic languages. As 60% of of humans are multilingual,<ref>McGibney, S. (2023): ''What Percentage of the World’s Population is Bilingual? Introduction to Bilingualism: Exploring the Global Language Diversity''. Online at: https://www.newsdle.com/blog/world-population-bilingual-percentage (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref> cross-linguistic influence could be used to facilitate the memorization and adoption of neologisms.<ref>Van Dijk, C./Van Wonderen, E./Koutamanis, E./Kootstra, G.J./Dijkstra, T./Unsworth, S. (2022): Cross-linguistic influence in simultaneous and early sequential bilingual children: a meta-analysis. In: ''J. Child Lang.'' ''49'', 897–929. 10.1017/S0305000921000337.</ref><ref>Van Dijk, C./Dijkstra, T./Unsworth, S. (2022): Cross-linguistic influence during online sentence processing in bilingual children. In: ''Bilingualism'' ''25'', 691–704. 10.1017/S1366728922000050.</ref> | ||
====Demonstrative adjective==== | ====Demonstrative adjective==== | ||
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|aucun <small>[ok<u>œ̃</u>]/[ok<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |aucun <small>[ok<u>œ̃</u>]/[ok<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|aucune <small>[oky<u>n</u>]</small> | |aucune <small>[oky<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | |aucueune <small>[ok<u>œn</u>]</small> | ||
|''aucan'' <small>[okɑ̃]/[okan]</small> | |''aucan'' <small>[okɑ̃]/[okan]</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|chacun <small>[ʃak<u>œ̃</u>/[ʃak<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |chacun <small>[ʃak<u>œ̃</u>/[ʃak<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|chacune <small>[ʃaky<u>n</u>]</small> | |chacune <small>[ʃaky<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | |chacueune <small>[ʃak<u>œn</u>]</small> | ||
|''chacan'' <small>[ʃakɑ̃]/[ʃakan]</small> | |''chacan'' <small>[ʃakɑ̃]/[ʃakan]</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|certain <small>[sɛʁt<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |certain <small>[sɛʁt<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|certaine <small>[sɛʁtɛ<u>n</u>]</small> | |certaine <small>[sɛʁtɛ<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | | | ||
|''certan'' <small>[sɛʁtɑ̃]/[sɛʁtan]</small> | |''certan'' <small>[sɛʁtɑ̃]/[sɛʁtan]</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|quelqu'un <small>[kɛlk<u>œ̃</u>]/[kɛlk<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |quelqu'un <small>[kɛlk<u>œ̃</u>]/[kɛlk<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|quelqu'une <small>[kɛlky<u>n</u>]</small> | |quelqu'une <small>[kɛlky<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
|quelqu' | |quelqu'eune <small>[kɛlk<u>œn</u>]</small> | ||
|quelqu'an <small>[kɛlkɑ̃]/[kɛlkan]</small> | |||
|} | |} | ||
The indefinite pronoun 'quelqu'une' is extremely rare in modern French and its pendant 'quelqu'un' not necessarily perceived as masculine,<ref>Liam (2023): Coming out day. 11.10.2023. Mon vécu de coming out. In: ''ekivock.nb'' (Instagram account). Online at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CyP-j_Tobbj/?img_index=3.</ref> thus it is not clear how essential the degendering of this pronoun is. | The indefinite pronoun 'quelqu'une' is extremely rare in modern French and its pendant 'quelqu'un' not necessarily perceived as masculine,<ref>Liam (2023): Coming out day. 11.10.2023. Mon vécu de coming out. In: ''ekivock.nb'' (Instagram account). Online at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CyP-j_Tobbj/?img_index=3.</ref> thus it is not clear how essential the degendering of this pronoun is. | ||
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|maître | |maître | ||
|maîtresse | |maîtresse | ||
| | |maîtré/maîtrè (or maîtræ) | ||
|maîtrexe | |maîtrexe | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|amoureux | |amoureux | ||
|amoureuse | |amoureuse | ||
| | |amoureuseux | ||
|amoureuxe [amuʁøks] | |amoureuxe [amuʁøks] | ||
amouré·e | |||
|- | |- | ||
!-eux/-esse | !-eux/-esse | ||
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|douxe | |douxe | ||
|} | |} | ||
The synthetic gender-neutral forms in which the silent consonant of the masculine form becomes audible mantain the original number of syllables. They have an audible suffix, like the feminine forms do, without that suffix being the same as the feminine | The synthetic gender-neutral forms in which the silent consonant of the masculine form becomes audible mantain the original number of syllables. They have an audible suffix, like the feminine forms do, without that suffix being the same as the feminine. Additionally, the fact that the audible consonant in gender-neutral form matches the consonant in the masculine suffix could facilitate the learning of these neologisms for literate French speakers. However, in cases where the masculine does not contain a silent <x> and the feminine has a distinctive suffix, such as with 'dieu, déesse', adopting the analytic approach may be more consistent in terms of spelling and inclusivity (see previous paragraph). | ||
====Endings with nasal vowels in the masculine form==== | ====Endings with nasal vowels in the masculine form==== | ||
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| écrivain <small>[Ekʁiv<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | | écrivain <small>[Ekʁiv<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|écrivaine <small>[Ekʁivɛ<u>n</u>]</small> | |écrivaine <small>[Ekʁivɛ<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | | | ||
|''écrivan'' <small>[Ekʁivɑ̃]/[Ekʁivan]</small> | |||
|- | |- | ||
!-ain/-ine | !-ain/-ine | ||
|copain <small>[kɔp<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |copain <small>[kɔp<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|copine <small>[kɔpi<u>n</u>]</small> | |copine <small>[kɔpi<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | |''cop<u>aine</u>'' <small>[kɔpɛn]</small> | ||
| | |copan <small>[kɔpɑ̃]/[kɔpan]</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
!-in/-ine | !-in/-ine | ||
|cousin <small>[kuz<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |cousin <small>[kuz<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|cousine <small>[kuzi<u>n</u>]</small> | |cousine <small>[kuzi<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | |''cousaine'' <small>[kuz<u>ɛn</u>]</small> | ||
| | |cousan <small>[kuzɑ̃]/[kuzan]</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
!-an/-anne | !-an/-anne | ||
|paysan <small>[pɛiz<u>ɑ̃</u>]</small> | |paysan <small>[pɛiz<u>ɑ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|paysanne <small>[pɛiza<u>n</u>]</small> | |paysanne <small>[pɛiza<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | | | ||
| | |paysaine <small>[pɛizɛn]</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
!-ien/-ienne | !-ien/-ienne | ||
|citoyen <small>[sitwaj<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |citoyen <small>[sitwaj<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|citoyenne <small>[sitwajɛ<u>n</u>]</small> | |citoyenne <small>[sitwajɛ<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | | | ||
|''citoyan'' <small>[sitwajɑ̃]/[sitwajan]</small> | |||
|- | |- | ||
!-un/-une<sup>1</sup> | !-un/-une<sup>1</sup> | ||
|brun <small>[bʁ<u>œ̃</u>]/[bʁ<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |brun <small>[bʁ<u>œ̃</u>]/[bʁ<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|brune <small>[bʁy<u>n</u>]</small> | |brune <small>[bʁy<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
|brunn <small>[bʁ<u>œ̃n</u>]/[bʁ<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small> | |breune, brunn <small>[bʁ<u>œ̃n</u>]/[bʁ<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small> | ||
|braine, ''bran'' | |braine, ''bran'' <small>[bʁɑ̃]/[bʁan]</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
!-un/-une<sup>2</sup> | !-un/-une<sup>2</sup> | ||
|opportun <small>[ɔpɔʁt<u>œ̃</u>]/[ɔpɔʁt<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | |opportun <small>[ɔpɔʁt<u>œ̃</u>]/[ɔpɔʁt<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small> | ||
|opportune <small>[ɔpɔʁty<u>n</u>]</small> | |opportune <small>[ɔpɔʁty<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | |opporteune, opportaine <small>[ɔpɔʁt<u>ɛn</u>]</small> | ||
| opportan <small>[ɔpɔʁtɑ̃]/[ɔpɔʁtan]</small> | |||
|- | |- | ||
!-on/-onne | !-on/-onne | ||
|mignon <small>[miɲ<u>õ</u>]</small> | |mignon <small>[miɲ<u>õ</u>]</small> | ||
|mignonne <small>[miɲɔ<u>n</u>]</small> | |mignonne <small>[miɲɔ<u>n</u>]</small> | ||
| | |migneune [miɲœn] | ||
|mignaine, ''mignan'' | |mignaine, ''mignan'' <small>[miɲɑ̃]/[miɲan]</small> | ||
|} | |} | ||
The '-aine' suffix has gained popularity. However, its use in monosyllabic words like 'brun·e' may hinder comprehension, which could explain why 'bran', a form that preserves the nasality of the final vowel while only changing its place of articulation, is more widespread. Words with a '-ien/-ienne' (and obviously also '-ain/-aine') suffix cannot form a synthetic gender-neutral form with '-aine', as this would result in a word pronounced exactly the same way as the feminine one (cf. 'citoyenne'). Here, the synthetical neutral forms created with '-an' only retain masculine phonetic traits (i. e. its manner of articulation — vocalic — and its nasality trait — which is positive). Theoretically, this could lead to similar issues as discussed in the Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix' subchapter. The same could be true with synthetic gender-neutral forms ending in '-aine', but this time in favour of the feminine. However, even though the suffix '-aine' could sound feminine, the resulting form is still easily distinguishable from the original one, since the vowels implied are oral and not nasal, and can therefore be less easily mistaken for mispronunciations — while 'écrivan', 'citoyan' and 'bran' could be (for more information, see the Indefinite and definite article subchapter). | The '-aine' suffix has gained popularity. However, its use in monosyllabic words like 'brun·e' may hinder comprehension, which could explain why 'bran', a form that preserves the nasality of the final vowel while only changing its place of articulation, is more widespread. Words with a '-ien/-ienne' (and obviously also '-ain/-aine') suffix cannot form a synthetic gender-neutral form with '-aine', as this would result in a word pronounced exactly the same way as the feminine one (cf. 'citoyenne'). Here, the synthetical neutral forms created with '-an' only retain masculine phonetic traits (i. e. its manner of articulation — vocalic — and its nasality trait — which is positive). Theoretically, this could lead to similar issues as discussed in the Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix' subchapter. The same could be true with synthetic gender-neutral forms ending in '-aine', but this time in favour of the feminine. However, even though the suffix '-aine' could sound feminine, the resulting form is still easily distinguishable from the original one, since the vowels implied are oral and not nasal, and can therefore be less easily mistaken for mispronunciations — while 'écrivan', 'citoyan' and 'bran' could be (for more information, see the Indefinite and definite article subchapter). | ||
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==Illustrative narrative text with neologisms== | ==Illustrative narrative text with neologisms== | ||
Neologisms from different paradigms and approaches are depicted here. | |||
''"Lae | ''"Lae maîtrè accueillent les enfants et leur demande de prendre place. La leçon du jour concerne les métiers. L’instituteurice interroge les élèves sur leurs souhaits professionnels et les professions exercées par les membres de leur famille. Eune élève dans la deuxième rangée prend la parole :'' | ||
*Plus tard, j’aimerais travailler en tant qu’infirmiér ou | *Plus tard, j’aimerais travailler en tant qu’infirmiér ou chirurgian, parce que mi frœur aîné·e, Amel, est eune brillande médecin à l’hôpital de Lyon et que je l’admire beaucoup. Malheureusement, al est très occupé·e en ce moment et je ne peux lo voir et passer du temps avec ael que le week-end. | ||
''An autre élève réagit :'' | ''An autre élève réagit :'' | ||
*Quand j’étais à l’hôpital parce qu’il y avait un problème avec mon glucomètre, | *Quand j’étais à l’hôpital parce qu’il y avait un problème avec mon glucomètre, li docteuresse qui s’est occupé·e de moi m’a dit qu’iel s’appelait Amel ! Est-ce que ton adelphe est rouxe, par hasard ? | ||
*Non, | *Non, al est pas rouxe, mais al se teint régulièrement les cheveux avec du henné ! | ||
*Alors je suis sur·e que c'était | *Alors je suis sur·e que c'était tan frœur ! Moi, quand je serai grante, j’aimerais m’occuper aussi bien des autres que le fait Amel. J’aimerais devenir éducataire spécialisé·e. | ||
*Moi aussi j’adore aider les autres ! Souvent, le matin, j’aide mi | *Moi aussi j’adore aider les autres ! Souvent, le matin, j’aide mi jumal à s’habiller, à préparer sa récré et à mettre ses chaussures, parce qu’iel a un chromosome de plus que moi alors certaines choses sont moins faciles pour ellui. Je me montre toujours patiende et douxe parce qu’iel fait pas ça exprès ! J’écrirai des livres sur ce dont les personnes qui réfléchissent différemment ont besoin et je découvrirai pourquoi elles pensent comme ça : du coup, quand je serai vieuille, je serai écrivan-chercheureuse. | ||
*Comment ça, quand tu seras vieilleux ? Tu crois que tu vas commencer à travailler quand ? | *Comment ça, quand tu seras vieilleux ? Tu crois que tu vas commencer à travailler quand ? | ||
*Je sais pas, quand je serai adulte, quand je serai vieuille quoi. | *Je sais pas, quand je serai adulte, quand je serai vieuille, quoi. | ||
* Ce que tu es | * Ce que tu es mignan de penser que je suis vieilleux, moi, merci bien. | ||
*(ricanements) | *(ricanements) | ||
*Moi, je suis un peu inquiède parce que je ne sais pas ce que je voudrais faire plus tard. | *Moi, je suis un peu inquiède parce que je ne sais pas ce que je voudrais faire plus tard. | ||
* Peut-être tes camarades peuvent te donner des idées. | * Peut-être tes camarades peuvent te donner des idées. | ||
*Je peux te raconter ce que fait | *Je peux te raconter ce que fait mo grante cousaine, Anh : comme al adore les animaux, al est devenu·e paysaine, comme ça al peut les caresser tous les jours ! | ||
* Mi | * Mi voisaine, à moi, iel est enseignande de Yoruba, et parfois iel donne même des cours à domicile. | ||
*Mais, je lae connais, | *Mais, je lae connais, tan voisan André·e, al est kazakhstanaisse, ses langues maternelles, c'est le russe et le kazakh, al peut pas enseigner le Yoruba. | ||
*Bien sûr qu’iel peut ! Tu as pas besoin d’avoir une nationalité spécifique pour savoir une langue ! La preuve, moi je suis allemante et | *Bien sûr qu’iel peut ! Tu as pas besoin d’avoir une nationalité spécifique pour savoir une langue ! La preuve, moi je suis allemante et italian, mais je parle que français. | ||
*On a discuté de beaucoup de métiers dans le monde du social. Est-ce que vous connaissez des gens dans des domaines plus techniques ? | *On a discuté de beaucoup de métiers dans le monde du social. Est-ce que vous connaissez des gens dans des domaines plus techniques ? | ||
*Oui, mi paman, par exemple, | *Oui, mi paman, par exemple, al travaille en tant qu’ingénieureuse de logiciel. Parfois, al est de piquet et, ces soirs-là, quand quelque chose tombe en panne, al devient toude blank et se précipite sur son ordinateur pour réparer le problème. Mapa dit toujours que je dois pas rire de Paman, dans ces moments, mais j’arrive pas à me retenir, la tête qu’al fait est trop drôle. | ||
*Et | *Et to paman, iel fait quoi ? | ||
*Ellui, iel est | *Ellui, iel est politician : iel vérifie que vous continuez à toustes vous comporter en bans citoyans ! | ||
*Tu es bien naïfive si tu penses qu’en général on se comporte en | *Tu es bien naïfive si tu penses qu’en général on se comporte en bans citoyans ! | ||
*Moi, j'ai pas pu parler encore. | *Moi, j'ai pas pu parler encore. | ||
*Vas-y, Ariel·le, on t'écoute. | *Vas-y, Ariel·le, on t'écoute. | ||
*Mi tancle, iel est | *Mi tancle, iel est champian de para hockey. | ||
*C'est pas un métier, ça, le sport. | *C'est pas un métier, ça, le sport. | ||
*Oh que si ! Iel s'entraîne dur tous les jours, d'ailleurs sine entraîneureuse est très fier·e d'ellui parce qu'iel est an | *Oh que si ! Iel s'entraîne dur tous les jours, d'ailleurs sine entraîneureuse est très fier·e d'ellui parce qu'iel est an capitan si engagé·e que son équipe est régulièrement sélectionnée pour les Jeux Paralympiques. Moi, plus tard, j'aimerais aussi être an sportifive de haut niveau, comme ellui. | ||
*Bien, sur ce, je vous propose à toustes d'aller enfiler vos affaires de sport : on se retrouve dans la salle de gymnastique pour une partie de unihockey. | *Bien, sur ce, je vous propose à toustes d'aller enfiler vos affaires de sport : on se retrouve dans la salle de gymnastique pour une partie de unihockey. | ||
''Les élèves :'' | ''Les élèves :'' | ||
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For neologisms to gain wider adoption, they must be learnable and user-friendly. This means they should be easy to understand and easy to remember (due to morphological motivation); easy to pronounce while adhering to the phoneme inventory and phonotactics of the language; familiar to the target audience; and responsive to a genuine need.<ref name=":16" /> If these criteria are met, neologisms will start being adopted by avant-garde language users. As these avant-garde figures gather large online communities, the frequency of usage of these neologisms will increase, fostering familiarity among the Francophone community. From then, some of these neologisms could potentially enter the standard vocabulary. | For neologisms to gain wider adoption, they must be learnable and user-friendly. This means they should be easy to understand and easy to remember (due to morphological motivation); easy to pronounce while adhering to the phoneme inventory and phonotactics of the language; familiar to the target audience; and responsive to a genuine need.<ref name=":16" /> If these criteria are met, neologisms will start being adopted by avant-garde language users. As these avant-garde figures gather large online communities, the frequency of usage of these neologisms will increase, fostering familiarity among the Francophone community. From then, some of these neologisms could potentially enter the standard vocabulary. | ||
== Main resources == | |||
# ★La vie en Queer (2018): ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif''. Online at: https://lavieenqueer.wordpress.com/2018/07/26/petit-dico-de-francais-neutre-inclusif/<nowiki/>.★ | |||
# Divergenres (2021): ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive''. Québec. Online at: https://divergenres.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/guide-grammaireinclusive-final.pdf. | |||
# Wiki Trans (2019): ''Comment parler d'une personne non binaire ?'' Online at: https://wikitrans.co/2019/12/25/comment-parler-dune-personne-non-binaire/. | |||
# Wiki LGBTQIA FR (2023): ''Néopronoms''. Online at: https://lgbtqia.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Neopronoms. | |||
# Alpheratz (2018): ''Genre neutre.TABLEAUX RÉCAPITULATIFS de mots de genre neutre (extraits)''. Online at: https://www.alpheratz.fr/linguistique/genre-neutre/. | |||
==References == | ==References == | ||
<references /> | <references /> | ||
[[Category:Gender neutral language]] | [[Category:Gender neutral language]] |