Nonbinary identities worldwide
The European society is, in general, very binarist. However, there are a lot of cultures that, traditionally, have had more than two genders. This page is a list of some of these nonbinary gender identities that are recognised in other cultures. Note that this is not a complete list.
Bugis society
The Bugis people are one of the three biggest ethnic groups located in South Sulawesi (Indonesia). They recognise five genders: makkunrai, oroané, bissu, calabai, and calalai. Makkunrai and oroané are the equivalents of cisgender men and women. Calabai is similar to trans women; they are assigned male at birth but take female gender roles and their gender expression is similar to that of cis women. Calalai, on the other hand, is the equivalent to trans men; they are assigned female at birth, but dress and present as cis men.[1]
Bissu is a gender identity similar to multigender: they are seen as a combination of all genders. Usually they are also intersex, but not necessarily.[2] Bissu people handle the roles of a shaman or a priest.[3]
Hijra
In Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, Hijras are assigned male at birth that take on the traditional roles of women, and they are recognised as a third gender by the government.[4] Traditionally, they act as a spiritual bargainer, and they go to houses with newborns to bless them.[3] Some of the hijras undergo a ritual, the nirwaan, to remove their penis, scrotum and testicles.[5]
Although they are officially recognised, the discrimination against them is still widespread.[3]
Muxe
In Zapotec cultures (Oaxaca, southern Mexico), a muxe is an assigned male at birth person that has a feminine gender expression and role. They are usually seen as a third gender.[6] It seems that muxes are more accepted in Oaxaca than homosexual men or trans women in other parts of the country. According to a study of the 1970s, 6% of males of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec were muxes.[7]
Every year, a festival called Vela de las intrépidas ("The Vigil of the Intrepid" in Spanish) is handled in Oaxaca, where thousands of muxes meet. Even some Catholic priests participate in it, which shows how well accepted muxes are.[3]
Two-spirit
In Native North American societies, two-spirit or berdache is the name of a third gender. Two-spirit people can do activities typically associated with their gender assigned at birth, or they can do activities associated with the opposite one.[8] Usually, assigned female at birth two-spirit people have sexual relations or marriages with females only.[9]
Two-spirit is just a general term in English, and most Indigenous communities have a word in their own languages to express this concept. That's why the definition of two-spirit can differ between communities.[10]
Kathoey
In Thailand, kathoey refers to trans women or effeminate gay men. However, a lot of people perceive kathoeys as a third gender.[11] Many kathoeys work in traditionally female occupations such as in shops or restaurants, but also in factories. They can also works in cabarets and as sex workers.[12]
Kathoeys are more accepted and visible in than Thai culture than transgender people in other countries. However, there's no legal recognition for kathoeys or transgender people in general, and the discrimination in employment is usual.[13]
Waria
In Indonesia, waria refers to a third gender.[14] Because the discrimination they face, most warias only have the option to work as sex workers. However, there's a yearly festival with a beauty competition for warias.[3]
Fa'afafine
Fa'afafine are people that identify as a third gender in Samoa. They are AMAB and typically have a feminine behaviour.[15] It has been estimated that between the 1% and 5% of Samoans are fa'afafine.[16] Fa'afafines are accepted in the Samoan culture, although in some conservative sectors of the society they are still discriminated.
References
- ↑ Carl, John D. (2011). Think Sociology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.
- ↑ "Sex, Gender, and Priests in South Sulawesi, Indonesia" (PDF). International Institute for Asian Studies. Retrieved 2011-07-25.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Trently, Devin. "10 Examples Of Nonbinary Genders Throughout History". ListVerse. 21 October 2015.
- ↑ "Hijras and Bangladesh: The creation of a third gender". pandeia.eu. 2 December 2013. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
- ↑ Nanda, S. "Hijras: An Alternative Sex and Gender Role in India (in Herdt, G. (1996) Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History. Zone Books.)
- ↑ Chiñas, Beverly (1995). Isthmus Zapotec attitudes toward sex and gender anomalies, pp. 293-302 in Stephen O. Murray (ed.), "Latin American Male Homosexualities" Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Chiñas (p. 294) defines muxe as “persons who appear to be predominantly male but display certain female characteristics” and fill a “third gender role between men and women, taking some of the characteristics of each.”
- ↑ Rymph, David (1974). Cross-sex behavior in an Isthmus Zapotec village. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Mexico City.
- ↑ Page 72 - http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/aboriginal-services-inventory.pdf
- ↑ Lang, S.: Men as women, women as men: Changing gender in Native American cultures. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1998.
- ↑ Pember, Mary Annette (Oct 13, 2016). "'Two Spirit' Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes". Rewire. Retrieved Oct 17, 2016.
- ↑ Winter, Sam (2003). Research and discussion paper: Language and identity in transgender: gender wars and the case of the Thai kathoey. Paper presented at the Hawaii conference on Social Sciences, Waikiki, June 2003. Article online.
- ↑ Winter S, Udomsak N (2002). Male, Female and Transgender: Stereotypes and Self in Thailand. International Journal of Transgenderism. 6,1
- ↑ Are you man enough to be a woman? Bangkok Post, 1 October 2007
- ↑ Oostvogels, Robert (1995). The Waria of Indonesia: A Traditional Third Gender Role, in Herdt (ed.), op cit.
- ↑ Bartlett, N. H.; Vasey, P. L. (2006). "A Retrospective Study of Childhood Gender-Atypical Behavior in Samoan Fa'afafine". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 35 (6): 659–66. doi: 10.1007/s10508-006-9055-1. PMID 16909317.
- ↑ http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-37227803
