Gender neutral language in French: Difference between revisions

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    {{WIP|Cmaass}}
    {{Gender neutral language}}
    {{Gender neutral language}}
    Nowadays, French knows only two genders: feminine and masculine. Activists have started seeking solutions to degender the language as much as possible and, therefore, make it more inclusive. These solutions entail neologisms as well as non neologisms. Here we present the still ongoing quest for (grammatical) gender inclusivity in the French language.
    The French language has two gramatical genders: feminine and masculine. Activists have started seeking solutions to degender the language as much as possible and, therefore, make it more inclusive. These solutions entail neologisms as well as non-neologisms.  


    == Non neologisms ==
    ==Non-neologisms==
    ===Refeminization ===
    Prior to the 17th century, French, like Italian, Spanish, and other Romance languages, utilized feminine inflections to distinguish female and male professionals. However, for a range of reasons — both societal, such as misogyny,<ref name=":1">Becquelin, H. (no data): ''Langage en tout genre. Argument historique''. Article on non discriminating language. University of Neuchâtel. Online at: https://www.unine.ch/epicene/home/pourquoi/argument-historique.html (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref><ref name=":12">Viennot, E. (2023): ''Pour un langage non sexiste ! Les accords égalitaires en français''. Online at: https://www.elianeviennot.fr/Langue-accords.html (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref> and linguistic<ref name=":2">Moreau, M.-L. (2019): L’accord de proximité dans l’écriture inclusive. Peut-on utiliser n’importe quel argument ? In: Dister, A./ Piron, S. (eds.): ''Les discours de référence sur la langue française (Presses de l’Université Saint-Louis)'', 351–378. 10.4000/books.pusl.26517.</ref>, as French was being standardized and dialect speakers were expected to learn French — grammarians ensured that these feminine designations were effectively removed from the language.<ref name=":1" />


    === Refeminization ===
    Today, many people refer to the contemporary introduction of feminine designations as 'feminization,' believing that these occupational titles are newly coined terms. However, this is not the case, as they are being revived from an earlier iteration of the French language, making 'refeminization'<ref name=":0">Divergenres (2021): ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive''. Québec. Online at: https://divergenres.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/guide-grammaireinclusive-final.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> a more accurate term.
    Prior to the 17th century, French, like Italian, Spanish, and other Romance languages, utilized feminine inflections to distinguish female professionals. However, for a range of reasons — both societal, such as misogyny,<ref name=":1">Becquelin, Hélène: ''Langage en tout genre. Argument historique''. Université de Neuchâtel. Online at: https://www.unine.ch/epicene/home/pourquoi/argument-historique.html (12.12.2023).</ref><ref name=":12">Viennot, Eliane (2023): Pour un langage non sexiste ! Les accords égalitaires en français. Online at: https://www.elianeviennot.fr/Langue-accords.html.</ref> and linguistic<ref name=":2">MOREAU, Marie-Louise. ''L’accord de proximité dans l’écriture inclusive. Peut-on utiliser n’importe quel argument ?'' In : ''Les discours de référence sur la langue française'' [en ligne]. Bruxelles : Presses de l’Université Saint-Louis, 2019 (généré le 12 décembre 2023). Disponible sur Internet : <<nowiki>http://books.openedition.org/pusl/26517</nowiki>>. ISBN : 9782802802457. DOI : <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4000/books.pusl.26517</nowiki>.</ref>, as French was being standardized and dialect speakers were expected to learn French — grammarians ensured that these feminine designations were effectively removed from the language.<ref name=":1" />


    Today, many people refer to the contemporary introduction of feminine designations as 'feminization,' believing that these occupational titles are newly coined terms. However, this is not the case, as they are being revived from an earlier iteration of the French language, making 'refeminization'<ref name=":0">Divergenres (2021): ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive''. Québec. Online at: https://divergenres.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/guide-grammaireinclusive-final.pdf.</ref> a more accurate term.
    Even though it seems paradoxical, refeminization is part of a movement to degender the French language, as studies in various languages have demonstrated that the generic masculine, despite being considered gender-neutral by French prescriptive grammar ("Selon Le Bon Usage de Maurice Grevisse, l'adjectif se met donc au 'genre indifférencié, c'est-à-dire au masculin'."),<ref name=":3">Alchimy (2017): ''« Le masculin l’emporte sur le féminin » : Bien plus qu’une règle de grammaire''. In: ''Usbek&Rica.''</ref> is not actually cognitively neutral.<ref>Tibblin, J./Van De Weijer, J./Granfeldt, J./Gygax, P. (2023): There are more women in ''joggeur·euses'' than in ''joggeurs'' : On the effects of gender-fair forms on perceived gender ratios in French role nouns. In: ''J. Fr. Lang. Stud.'' ''33'', 28–51. 10.1017/S0959269522000217.</ref><ref>Heise, E. (2003): Auch einfühlsame Studenten sind Männer: Das generische Maskulinum und die mentale Repräsentation von Personen [Even empathic students are men: The generic masculine and the mental representation of persons]. In: ''Verhaltenstherapie & Psychosoziale Praxis 35''(2), 285–291.</ref> By incorporating the feminine form of a word, speakers acknowledge the presence of individuals of more genders than just one.
     
    Even though it seems paradoxical, refeminization is part of a movement to degender the French language, as studies in various languages have demonstrated that the generic masculine, despite being considered gender-neutral by French prescriptive grammar,<ref name=":3">Alchimy (2017): « Le masculin l’emporte sur le féminin » : Bien plus qu’une règle de grammaire. ''Usbek&Rica'': "Selon Le Bon Usage de Maurice Grevisse, l'adjectif se met donc au 'genre indifférencié, c'est-à-dire au masculin'."</ref> is not actually cognitively neutral.<ref>Tibblin, J., Weijer, J. van de, Granfeldt, J., & Gygax, P. (2023). There are more women in joggeur·euses than in joggeurs : On the effects of gender-fair forms on perceived gender ratios in French role nouns. ''Journal of French Language Studies, 33'', 28‑51. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959269522000217.</ref><ref>Heise, E. (2003). Auch einfühlsame Studenten sind Männer: Das generische Maskulinum und die mentale Repräsentation von Personen [Even empathic students are men: The generic masculine and the mental representation of persons]. ''Verhaltenstherapie & Psychosoziale Praxis, 35''(2), 285–291.</ref> By incorporating the feminine form of a word, speakers acknowledge the presence of individuals of more genders than just one.


    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    Line 17: Line 15:
    !Refeminized
    !Refeminized
    |-
    |-
    |un auteur
    | un auteur  
    |une auteur(e)
    |une auteur(e)
    |une autrice
    | une autrice
    |-
    |-
    |un professeur
    |un professeur
    Line 34: Line 32:
    |}
    |}


    === Doublets ===
    ===Doublets===
    For example, « Nous prions les <u>étudiantes</u> et (les) <u>étudiants</u> de remettre leur copie à la personne responsable ». Some people don't enjoy the repetition,<ref name=":10">OMPI (2022): ''Guide de l’OMPI pour un langage inclusif en français''. Genève. Online at: https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/women-and-ip/fr/docs/guidelines-inclusive-language.pdf.</ref> others consider that the doublets don't encompass all genders,<ref name=":4">Ménard, Jean-Sébastien (2021): ''Pour un français neutre et une inclusion des personnes non binaires : une entrevue avec Florence Ashley''. Longueuil. Online at:https://www.cegepmontpetit.ca/static/uploaded/Files/Cegep/Centre%20de%20reference/Le%20francais%20saffiche/Une-entrevue-avec-Florence-Ashley.pdf (12.12.2023), p. 13, p. 6.</ref> others again are unsure which form to mention first, since the order conveys information about the value the speaker gives to each item.<ref>Pascal Gygax, Manon Boschard, Geoffrey Cornet, Magali Croci, Natasha Stegmann (2021): ''Les outils - la (re)féminisation. Langage inclusif''. Online at: https://tube.switch.ch/videos/0xwYktNzRp, 00:50.</ref>
    For example, « Nous prions les <u>étudiantes</u> et (les) <u>étudiants</u> de remettre leur copie à la personne responsable ». Some people don't enjoy the repetition,<ref name=":10">OMPI (2022): ''Guide de l’OMPI pour un langage inclusif en français''. Online at: https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/women-and-ip/fr/docs/guidelines-inclusive-language.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> others consider that the doublets don't encompass all genders,<ref name=":4">Ménard, J.-S. (2021): ''Pour un français neutre et une inclusion des personnes non binaires : une entrevue avec Florence Ashley''. Longueuil: Cégep Édouard-Montpetit. Online at:https://www.cegepmontpetit.ca/static/uploaded/Files/Cegep/Centre%20de%20reference/Le%20francais%20saffiche/Une-entrevue-avec-Florence-Ashley.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> others again are unsure which form to mention first, since the order conveys information about the value the speaker gives to each item.<ref>Pascal, G./Boschard, Μ./Cornet, G./Croci, M./Stegmann, N. (2021): ''Les outils - la (re)féminisation. Langage inclusif''. Online at: https://tube.switch.ch/videos/0xwYktNzRp, 00:50 (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref>


    === Shortened doublets ===
    ===Shortened doublets===
    The feminine suffix is attached to the masculine, rather than the whole word being repeated (as in classical doublets).<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":4" />
    The feminine suffix is attached to the masculine, rather than the whole word being repeated (as in classical doublets).<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":4" />


    Line 56: Line 54:
    |}
    |}


    === Epicene person descriptions ===
    ===Epicene person descriptions===
    For instance, « <u>Les élèves</u> apprennent leur leçon. »; « <u>L'enfant</u> regarde la télévision. »; « <u>Les juges</u> ont pris leur décision. ». As singular articles indicate gender ('la' and 'le'), this technique works best with plural forms. However, it also works with singular forms if the noun begins with a vowel, because the article automatically becomes "l'...," which does not express gender. A drawback is that there are not epicene occupational titles for all professions or functions.<ref name=":0" />
    For instance, « <u>Les élèves</u> apprennent leur leçon. »; « <u>L'enfant</u> regarde la télévision. »; « <u>Les juges</u> ont pris leur décision. ». As singular articles indicate gender ('la' and 'le'), this technique works best with plural forms. However, it also works with singular forms if the noun begins with a vowel, because the article automatically becomes "l'...," which does not express gender. A drawback is that there are not epicene occupational titles for all professions or functions.<ref name=":0" />


    === Grammatically fixed gender nouns and impersonal formulations ===
    In certain Swiss-French varieties, as in the canton of Vaud, masculine and feminine words ending in '-é' resp. '-ée' are pronounced differently (i. e. 'une employée' [ynɑ̃plwaj<u>e:</u>]/[ynɑ̃plwaj<u>e:j</u>] ''versus'' 'un employé' [ɛ̃nɑ̃plwaj<u>e</u>]/[œ̃nɑ̃plwaj<u>e</u>]). However, this linguistically conservative pronunciation is becoming increasingly marginal: it is primarily confined to Switzerland and, in major cities and among younger generations, the pronunciation is gradually converging with the standard French norm, meaning that the distinction between /e/ and /e:/ (or /e:j/, remnant from Franco-Provençal dialects, i. e. Patois, spoken in the region before linguistic homogenization) is being neutralized, resulting in a single phoneme /e/ and causing 'employé' and 'employée' to be pronounced identically. As a result, here, these words are considered orally epicene.
     
    === Monogender epicene nouns and collective terms ===
    The table below shows gendered language on the left and neutral — i.e. grammatical gender that has nothing to do with biological sex or gender identity — language on the right.
    The table below shows gendered language on the left and neutral — i.e. grammatical gender that has nothing to do with biological sex or gender identity — language on the right.
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Impersonal formulations<ref name=":11" />
    |+Collective terms<ref name=":11" />
    !Inclusive gendered language
    !Inclusive gendered language
    !Inclusive neutral language
    !Inclusive neutral language
    Line 73: Line 73:
    |}
    |}
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Grammatically fixed gender nouns<ref name=":11" />
    |+Monogender (epicene) nouns<ref name=":11" />
    !Explicit binary gender
    !Explicit binary gender
    !Grammatically fixed gender
    !Grammatically fixed gender
    Line 84: Line 84:
    |}
    |}


    === Proximity agreement ===
    ===Proximity agreement===
    Up until the 18th century, the masculine gender did not always take precedence over the feminine in instances where the genders could theoretically be congruent: proximity<ref>EPFL (2023): ''L’accord de proximité''. Online at:https://www.epfl.ch/about/equality/fr/langage-inclusif/guide/principes/accord/ (12.12.2023).</ref> and free-choice agreement coexisted alongside the masculine-over-feminine rule.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":2" /> For a significant portion of Old French history, proximity agreement was the most prevalent method for agreeing adjectives, past participles, etc. (cf. Anglade 1931:172).<ref>Anglade, Joseph (1931): ''Grammaire élémentaire de l'ancien français''. Paris: Armand Colin, 157-196. Online at: https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Grammaire_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_l%E2%80%99ancien_fran%C3%A7ais/Chapitre_6.</ref> Today, this agreement could facilitate gender equality in grammar instead of the masculine-over-feminine hierarchy that was suggested in the 17th and 18th century by French grammarians such as Malherbe, Vaugelas, Bouhours and Beauzée:<blockquote>« Le genre masculin, étant le plus noble, doit prédominer toutes les fois que le masculin et le féminin se trouvent ensemble. » (Claude Favre de Vaugelas, ''Remarques sur la langue français''e, 1647).<ref name=":1" />
    Up until the 18th century, the masculine gender did not always take precedence over the feminine in instances where the genders could theoretically be congruent: proximity<ref>EPFL (2023): ''L’accord de proximité''. Online at:https://www.epfl.ch/about/equality/fr/langage-inclusif/guide/principes/accord/ (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> and free-choice agreement coexisted alongside the masculine-over-feminine rule.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":2" /> For a significant portion of Old French history, proximity agreement was the most prevalent method for agreeing adjectives, past participles, etc. (cf. Anglade 1931:172).<ref>Anglade, J. (1931): ''Grammaire élémentaire de l'ancien français''. Paris: Armand Colin, 157–196.</ref> Today, this agreement could facilitate gender equality in grammar instead of the masculine-over-feminine hierarchy that was suggested in the 17th and 18th century by French grammarians such as Malherbe, Vaugelas, Bouhours and Beauzée:<blockquote>« Le genre masculin, étant le plus noble, doit prédominer toutes les fois que le masculin et le féminin se trouvent ensemble. » (Claude Favre de Vaugelas, ''Remarques sur la langue français''e, 1647).<ref name=":1" />


    « Lorsque les deux genres se rencontrent, il faut que le plus noble l’emporte. » (Bouhours 1675).<ref name=":3" />
    « Lorsque les deux genres se rencontrent, il faut que le plus noble l’emporte. » (Bouhours 1675).<ref name=":3" />
    Line 92: Line 92:
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+
    |+
    !Masculine-prevails-over-feminine rule
    !Masculine-prevails-over-feminine rule  
    !Proximity agreement
    !Proximity agreement  
    |-
    |-
    |Ces œillets et ces roses sont '''beaux'''.
    |Ces œillets et ces roses sont '''beaux'''.
    |Ces œillets et ces roses sont '''belles'''.
    |Ces œillets et ces roses sont '''belles'''.
    |-
    |-
    |Les '''nombreux''' filles et garçons.
    | Les '''nombreux''' filles et garçons.
    |Les '''nombreuses''' filles et garçons.
    | Les '''nombreuses''' filles et garçons.  
    |}
    |}


    ==Neologisms==
    ==Neologisms==


    === Personal pronouns ===
    ===Personal pronouns===


    ==== Subject pronouns ====
    ====Subject pronouns====
    French only distinguishes gender in the third-person singular (cf. 'elle' and 'il'). Up until the 12th century, French knew the neutral subject pronoun 'el'/'al'.<ref>Marchello-Nizia Christiane. Le neutre et l'impersonnel. In: ''Linx'', n°21, 1989. Genre et langage. Actes du colloque tenu à Paris X-Nanterre les 14-15-16 décembre 1988, sous la direction de Eliane Koskas et Danielle Leeman. 173-179. DOI : https://doi.org/10.3406/linx.1989.1139. Online at: www.persee.fr/doc/linx_0246-8743_1989_num_21_1_1139.</ref> Today, 'el' cannot be reintroduced from Old French as it would sound identical to 'elle', the current feminin subject pronoun. As for 'al', it sounds like 'elle' in spoken Canadian French.<ref name=":5">Florence Ashley (2019): Les personnes non-binaires en français : une perspective concernée et militante. In: ''H-France Salon'' 11(14), p. 6.</ref> It could, however, still be a viable option for the rest of the Francophone community.<ref name=":13">Alpheratz (2018): Genre neutre.TABLEAUX RÉCAPITULATIFS de mots de genre neutre (extraits). Online at: https://www.alpheratz.fr/linguistique/genre-neutre/.</ref> Nowadays, according to the ''Guide de rédaction inclusive'' (2021:14) from the Laval University,<ref name=":11">Université Laval (2021): Guide de rédaction inclusive. Online at: https://www.ulaval.ca/sites/default/files/EDI/Guide_redaction_inclusive_DC_UL.pdf.</ref> the ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive'' (2021:5) from Divergenres,<ref name=":0" /> the ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif'' (2018) from La vie en Queer,<ref name=":6">La vie en Queer (2018): Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif. Online at: https://lavieenqueer.wordpress.com/2018/07/26/petit-dico-de-francais-neutre-inclusif/.</ref>  and Wiki Trans (2019),<ref name=":7">Wiki Trans (2019): Comment parler d'une personne non binaire ? Online at: https://wikitrans.co/2019/12/25/comment-parler-dune-personne-non-binaire/.</ref> the most widely adopted subject (neo)pronoun is 'iel'. It was added to the prestigious dictionary ''Le Robert'' in 2021.<ref>Radio Télévision Suisse (2021): L'entrée du pronom "iel" dans Le Robert provoque des remous. Online at: https://www.rts.ch/info/monde/12651159-lentree-du-pronom-iel-dans-le-robert-provoque-des-remous.html.</ref> Alongside 'iel', Canadian French also uses 'ille'.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> In metropolitan France, the pronoun 'al', proposed by linguist Alpheratz in their book ''Grammaire du français inclusif'' (2018) has gained some recognition. The table below presents the primary gender-neutral subject pronouns found in the French-speaking world.
    French only distinguishes gender in the third-person singular (cf. 'elle' and 'il'). Up until the 12th century, French knew the neutral subject pronoun 'el'/'al'.<ref>Marchello-Nizia, C. (1989): Le neutre et l’impersonnel. In: ''Linx'' ''21'', 173–179. 10.3406/linx.1989.1139.</ref> Today, 'el' cannot be reintroduced from Old French as it would sound identical to 'elle', the current feminin subject pronoun. As for 'al', it sounds like 'elle' in spoken Canadian French.<ref name=":5">Ashley, F. (2019): Les personnes non-binaires en français : une perspective concernée et militante. In: ''H-France Salon'' ''11''(14).</ref> It could, however, still be a viable option for the rest of the Francophone community.<ref name=":13">Alpheratz (2018): ''Genre neutre.TABLEAUX RÉCAPITULATIFS de mots de genre neutre (extraits)''. Online at: https://www.alpheratz.fr/linguistique/genre-neutre/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> Nowadays, according to the ''Guide de rédaction inclusive'' (2021:14) from the Laval University,<ref name=":11">Université Laval (2021): ''Guide de rédaction inclusive''. Online at: https://www.ulaval.ca/sites/default/files/EDI/Guide_redaction_inclusive_DC_UL.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).</ref> the ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive'' (2021:5) from Divergenres,<ref name=":0" /> the ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif'' (2018) from La vie en Queer,<ref name=":6">La vie en Queer (2018): ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif''. Online at: https://lavieenqueer.wordpress.com/2018/07/26/petit-dico-de-francais-neutre-inclusif/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref>  and Wiki Trans (2019),<ref name=":7">Wiki Trans (2019): ''Comment parler d'une personne non binaire ?'' Online at: https://wikitrans.co/2019/12/25/comment-parler-dune-personne-non-binaire/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> the most widely adopted subject (neo)pronoun is 'iel'. It was added to the prestigious dictionary ''Le Robert'' in 2021.<ref>Radio Télévision Suisse (2021): ''L'entrée du pronom "iel" dans Le Robert provoque des remous''. Online at: https://www.rts.ch/info/monde/12651159-lentree-du-pronom-iel-dans-le-robert-provoque-des-remous.html (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> Alongside 'iel', Canadian French also uses 'ille'.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> In metropolitan France, the pronoun 'al', proposed by linguist Alpheratz in their book ''Grammaire du français inclusif'' (2018), has gained some recognition. The table below presents the primary gender-neutral subject pronouns found in the French-speaking world.
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+
    |+
    !
    !
    ! colspan="3" |gender-neutral subject pronouns                  
    ! colspan="3" |gender-neutral subject pronouns
    |-
    |-
    !Dominant usage
    !Dominant usage
    |iel <small>[jɛl]</small>
    |iel <small>[jɛl]</small>
    |ille <small>[ij]</small><ref name=":5" />
    |ille <small>[ij]</small><ref name=":5" />
    |al
    | al  
    |-
    |-
    !Peripheral usage
    ! Peripheral usage
    |ol
    |ol
    |ul
    |ul
    Line 124: Line 124:
    |}
    |}


    ==== Clitic and tonic pronouns ====
    ====Clitic and tonic pronouns====
    French distinguishes between clitic and tonic pronouns. A clitic is a word that attaches in a syntactically rigid way to another word to form a prosodic unit with it, lacking prosodic as well as distributional autonomy.<ref name=":8">Michel Launey, Dominique Levet (2017): ''La catégorie de la personne''. Maison des Sciences des l'Homme Paris Nord. Online at: https://web.ac-reims.fr/casnav/enfants_nouv_arrives/aide_a_la_scolarisation/LGIDF/LGIDF.LA%20PERSONNE.02.03.17.pdf.</ref> Currently, there is no prevailing gender-neutral clitic direct object personal pronoun; the most common ones are detailed below.
    French distinguishes between clitic and tonic pronouns. A clitic is a word that attaches in a syntactically rigid way to another word to form a prosodic unit with it, lacking prosodic as well as distributional autonomy.<ref name=":8">Michel, L./Levet, D. (2017): ''La catégorie de la personne''. Saint-Denis: MSH Paris Nord. Online at: https://web.ac-reims.fr/casnav/enfants_nouv_arrives/aide_a_la_scolarisation/LGIDF/LGIDF.LA%20PERSONNE.02.03.17.pdf (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> Currently, there is no prevailing gender-neutral clitic direct object personal pronoun; the most common ones are detailed below.
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Clitic pronouns
    |+Clitic pronouns
    !Subject
    !Subject
    !Direct object
    ! Direct object
    !Indirect object
    !Indirect object
    |-
    |-
    |il
    |il
    |le, (l')
    | le, (l')
    |lui
    |lui
    |-
    |-
    Line 141: Line 141:
    |-
    |-
    |<u>iel</u>
    |<u>iel</u>
    |<u>lae</u> <small>[lae]</small><u>/lo/li/lu/lia, (l')</u>
    |<u>lae</u> <small>[lae]</small><u>/lo/lan/</u><ref>Wiki LGBTQIA FR (2021): ''Al/lan''. Online at: https://lgbtqia.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Al/lan (retrieved 11.01.2024).</ref><u>li/lu/lia, (l')</u>
    |<u>lui</u>
    |<u>lui</u>
    |-
    |-
    Line 156: Line 156:
    |<u>leur</u>
    |<u>leur</u>
    |}
    |}
    Tonic pronouns are also called 'autonomous' because, in opposition to clitics, they form their own prosodic unit and can stand alone in the sentence, hence their distribution is not as fixed as the clitics' one.<ref name=":8" /> There are currently two competing systems:<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> one consists in syncretizing (cf. analogical levelling)<ref name=":9">Campbell, Lyle (1998): ''Historical Linguistics. An Introduction''. First ed. Cambridge/Massachusetts: The MIT Press.</ref> clitic and tonic pronouns, following the paradigm of standard French 'elle', which equates keeping the gender-neutral subject pronoun — be it 'iel', 'ille', 'al' or 'ol', etc. — as such; the other approach, exemplified in the table below with 'iel', supports differentiating (cf. analogical extension)<ref name=":9" /> clitics from tonic pronouns, thereby aligning with the paradigm of 'il'.
    Tonic pronouns are also called 'autonomous' because, in opposition to clitics, they form their own prosodic unit and can stand alone in the sentence, hence their distribution is not as fixed as the clitics' one.<ref name=":8" /> There are currently two competing systems:<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Spencer-Hall, A./Gutt, B. (eds)(2021): ''Trans and Genderqueer Subjects in Medieval Hagiography''. Amsterdam University Press. DOI: 10.2307/j.ctv1ks0cj4.
     
    French cultural and linguistic translation from Maillet C. online at: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/88291459/Maillet_Trad_Terminologie_20pour_20les_20e_3Ftudes_20trans_20et_20non_20binaire_2021-libre.pdf?1657042694=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DTerminologie_pour_les_etudes_trans_et_no.pdf&Expires=1704980549&Signature=aHUqRbpWbQ8K1jtiqQoQV6cgYM~YTcaZmgDhb8U2KTMDILHd8PhO9peeR0SLWNPOlX5RCo1E7aQcCdQzxBeyKmzPDgp9QbYArmWmHSmtOH-QZRUvrjeFeEZSp6qzmIGyZD3ebRNlOH5aMrJViI1eQ32o53Bw2ghAge~D9upEEx~KXPQe9FIUArfFQo0ylInGK9jqh-OM60Qz2pXRc8llTJ3ovtnVPiL2cu2l1mcfBODJyb~IZZZ1MPczrVu-79y1RjeMr8f5BGtMbRD5nv8jtmLex6vWmIl1svtYZTpOaFPy8LwWBa70VogboWPqfAoOL1~CDZPuhlGuDmDErNknDA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA{{Dead link|date=January 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (retrieved 11.01.2024).</ref> one consists in syncretizing (cf. analogical levelling)<ref name=":9">Campbell, L. (1998): ''Historical Linguistics. An Introduction''. First ed. Cambridge/Massachusetts: The MIT Press.</ref> clitic and tonic pronouns, following the paradigm of standard French 'elle', which equates keeping the gender-neutral subject pronoun — be it 'iel', 'ille', 'al' or 'ol', etc. — as such; the other approach, exemplified in the table below with 'iel', supports differentiating (cf. analogical extension)<ref name=":9" /> clitics from tonic pronouns, thereby aligning with the paradigm of 'il'.
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Analogical extension
    |+Analogical extension
    !Clitic subject pronoun
    !Clitic subject pronoun
    !Tonic pronoun
    !Tonic pronoun  
    |-
    |-
    |il
    |il
    |lui
    |lui
    |-
    |-
    |elle
    | elle  
    |elle
    |elle
    |-
    |-
    Line 171: Line 173:
    |<u>ellui</u> <small>[ɛllɥi]</small>
    |<u>ellui</u> <small>[ɛllɥi]</small>
    |-
    |-
    |ils
    | ils
    |eux
    |eux
    |-
    |-
    Line 181: Line 183:
    |}
    |}


    === Determiners ===
    ===Determiners===


    ==== Indefinite and definite article ====
    ====Indefinite and definite article====
    The distinction between 'analytic gender-neutral' ''versus'' 'synthetic gender-neutral' is usually referred to as 'inclusif' ''versus'' 'neutre'.<ref name=":0" /> Compounds — such as 'maon', from 'ma' and 'mon' — and portmanteau words, like 'utilisateurice', could be cognitively interpreted as neutral; at least, there have been no psycholinguistic studies disconfirming this, to the extent that these forms could technically also be called neutral. Furthermore, since gender-neutral forms are inherently inclusive of all genders, there is no reason why they cannot be called that way either. The subsequent interchangeability of these terms makes them unsuitable for differentiating these two methods of creating gender-neutral/gender inclusive words in French. For this reason, the following table distinguishes them based on their morphological properties — blend words being more analytical and non blend words being more synthetic.
    The distinction between 'analytic gender-neutral' ''versus'' 'synthetic gender-neutral' is usually referred to as 'inclusif' ''versus'' 'neutre'.<ref name=":0" /> Compounds — such as 'maon', from 'ma' and 'mon' — and portmanteau words, like 'utilisateurice', could be cognitively interpreted as neutral; at least, there have been no psycholinguistic studies disconfirming this, to the extent that these forms could technically also be called neutral. Furthermore, since gender-neutral forms are inherently inclusive of all genders, there is no reason why they cannot be called that way either. The subsequent interchangeability of these terms makes them unsuitable for differentiating these two methods of creating gender-neutral/gender inclusive words in French. For this reason, the following table distinguishes them based on their morphological properties — blend words being more analytical and non blend words being more synthetic.


    Line 189: Line 191:


    The underlining of phonemes in the IPA transcription of certain words does not carry any phonetic meaning: it is used solely to highlight which phonetic elements from the feminine and masculine forms have been incorporated into the analytic gender-neutral neologism.
    The underlining of phonemes in the IPA transcription of certain words does not carry any phonetic meaning: it is used solely to highlight which phonetic elements from the feminine and masculine forms have been incorporated into the analytic gender-neutral neologism.
    [[File:IPA vowel trapezium for standard French.png|alt=IPA vowel trapezium for standard French|thumb|IPA vowel trapezium for standard French]]
    [[File:Vowel trapezium for standard French.png|alt=IPA vowel trapezium for standard French|thumb|IPA vowel trapezium for standard French]]
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+
    |+
    Line 195: Line 197:
    !Masculine
    !Masculine
    !Feminine
    !Feminine
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral  
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    |-
    |-
    Line 209: Line 211:
    |''lae'' <small>[lae]</small>, lea <small>[ləa]</small>
    |''lae'' <small>[lae]</small>, lea <small>[ləa]</small>
    |''lo'', li, lu, lia
    |''lo'', li, lu, lia
    |}'an' is quite common, particularly in the [ɑ̃] pronunciation, where it shares a core feature with 'un': both consist solely of a nasal vowel. 'eune' [œn] combines the roundedness and degree of aperture of 'un' [œ̃] with the terminal nasal consonant [n] of 'une'. In metropolitan French, where 'un' is typically pronounced as [ɛ̃], 'eune' shares a phonetic characteristic with 'une' through the final [n] and one with 'un' through the similar degree of aperture of their vocalic nucleus.
    |}'an' is quite common, particularly in the [ɑ̃] pronunciation, where it shares a core feature with 'un': both consist solely of a nasal vowel. 'eune' [œn] combines the roundedness and degree of aperture of 'un' [œ̃] with the terminal nasal consonant [n] of 'une'. In metropolitan French, where 'un' is typically pronounced as [ɛ̃], 'eune' shares a phonetic characteristic with 'une' through the final [n], and one with 'un' through the similar degree of aperture of their vocalic nucleus.


    A drawback of 'an' pronounced as [ɑ̃] is its nasality, a factor known for making vowels challenging to distinguish and learn, even for native French speakers.<ref>Etienne Sicard, Anne Menin-Sicard, Gabriel Rousteau. Oppositions de voyelles orales et nasales : identification des formants selon le genre. INSA Toulouse. 2022. ffhal-03826558v2f.</ref> Consequently, [ɑ̃] might be perceived as a mispronunciation of 'un' or simply not distinct enough from 'un' to be recognized as a different morpheme.
    A drawback of 'an' pronounced as [ɑ̃] is its nasality, a factor known for making vowels challenging to distinguish and learn, even for native French speakers.<ref>Sicard, E./Menin-Sicard, A./Rousteau, G. (2022): ''Oppositions de voyelles orales et nasales : identification des formants selon le genre''. INSA Toulouse: ffhal-03826558v2f.</ref> Consequently, [ɑ̃] might be perceived as a mispronunciation of 'un' or simply not distinct enough from 'un' to be recognized as a different morpheme.
    ==== Possessive adjectives ====
    ====Possessive adjectives ====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    !
    !
    !Masculine
    ! Masculine
    !Feminine
    !Feminine
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    Line 224: Line 226:
    |ma
    |ma
    |''maon'' <small>[maõ]</small>
    |''maon'' <small>[maõ]</small>
    |''man'' <small>[mɑ̃]/[man]</small>, mi(ne)
    |''man'' <small>[mɑ̃]/[man]</small>, mo, mi(ne), mian <small>[mjɑ̃]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !2SG
    !2SG
    Line 230: Line 232:
    |ta
    |ta
    |''taon'' <small>[taõ]</small>
    |''taon'' <small>[taõ]</small>
    |''tan'' <small>[tɑ̃]/[tan]</small>, ti(ne)
    |''tan'' <small>[tɑ̃]/[tan]</small>, to, ti(ne)
    |-
    |-
    !3SG
    !3SG  
    |son
    |son
    |sa
    |sa
    |''saon'' <small>[saõ]</small>
    |''saon'' <small>[saõ]</small>
    |''san'' <small>[sɑ̃]/[san]</small>, sine <small>[sin]</small>
    |''san'' <small>[sɑ̃]/[san]</small>, so, si(ne)
    |}
    |}
    The possessive adjectives 'mon', 'ton', and 'son', which are generally masculine, are also used as feminine possessive adjectives when combined with a feminine noun that begins (phonetically) with a vowel: 'mon amie', 'ton employée', 'son hôtesse', etc. Therefore, there is no need to use a possessive neologism in words starting with vowels, as the masculine and feminine gender are syncretized in this context.
    The possessive adjectives 'mon', 'ton', and 'son', which are generally masculine, are also used as feminine possessive adjectives when combined with a feminine noun that begins (phonetically) with a vowel: 'mon amie', 'ton employée', 'son hôtesse', etc. Therefore, there is no need to use a possessive neologism in words starting with vowels, as the masculine and feminine gender are syncretized in this context.


    The pronunciation [sɑ̃] of 'san' is a homophone of 'sang' ('blood'). Alpheratz proposes 'mu(n)', 'tu(n)', 'su(n)'<ref name=":13" /> as synthetic forms. However, 'tu(n)' is a homophone of the subject pronoun 'tu', and <nowiki><u> — i. e. [y] — is a linguistically marked phone</nowiki>.<ref>Rice, K. (2007). Markedness in phonology. In: ''The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology'', 79-98. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511486371.005.</ref><ref>Carvalho, Joaquim (Brandão de) (2023): “From binary features To elements: Implications for markedness theory and phonological acquisition”. In: ''Radical: A Journal of Phonology'' 3, 346-384. Here specifically: 352-353.</ref> Alternative forms could be 'mi(ne)', 'ti(ne)', 'sine', as only the roundness parameter (cf. [y] and [i] in the IPA) distinguishes them from the original neologisms from Alpheratz. 'sine' would be the only one without an optional '-ne' ending to avoid homophony with 'si' (i. e. 'if'). Similar-sounding possessive adjectives can be found in Spanish ('mi'), in English ('my'), in Swedish ('min', 'din', 'sin', the last one being a gender-neutral reflexive possessive pronoun),<ref>Duolingo Wiki: ''Swedish Skills. Possessives''. Online at:https://duolingo.fandom.com/wiki/Swedish_Skill:Possessives.</ref> in Norwegian,<ref>Norwegian University of Science and Technology (no data): ''8 Grammar. Possessives''. Online at: https://www.ntnu.edu/now/8/grammar.</ref>  in Swiss-German,<ref>Klaudia Kolbe (2017): ''Schweizerdeutsch. Schlüssel zu den Übungen.'' Online at: https://silo.tips/download/schweizerdeutsch-schlssel-zu-den-bungen.</ref>  and in other Germanic languages. As 60% of of humans are multilingual,<ref>Sean McGibney (2023): ''What Percentage of the World’s Population is Bilingual? Introduction to Bilingualism: Exploring the Global Language Diversity''. Online at: https://www.newsdle.com/blog/world-population-bilingual-percentage.</ref> cross-linguistic influence could be used to facilitate the memorization and adoption of neologisms.<ref>VAN DIJK C, VAN WONDEREN E, KOUTAMANIS E, KOOTSTRA GJ, DIJKSTRA T, UNSWORTH S. (2022): Cross-linguistic influence in simultaneous and early sequential bilingual children: a meta-analysis. In: ''Journal of Child Language'' 5, :897-929. doi:10.1017/S0305000921000337.</ref><ref>van Dijk C, Dijkstra T, Unsworth S. Cross-linguistic influence during online sentence processing in bilingual children (2022): In: ''Bilingualism: Language and Cognition'' 4, 691-704. doi:10.1017/S1366728922000050.</ref>
    The pronunciation [sɑ̃] of 'san' is a homophone of 'sang' ('blood'). Alpheratz proposes 'mu(n)', 'tu(n)', 'su(n)'<ref name=":13" /> as synthetic forms. However, 'tu(n)' is a homophone of the subject pronoun 'tu', and <nowiki><u> — i. e. [y] — is a linguistically marked phone</nowiki>.<ref>Rice, K. (2007): Markedness in phonology. In: ''The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology'', 79–98. 10.1017/cbo9780511486371.005.</ref><ref>Carvalho, J. (2023): From binary features to elements: Implications for markedness theory and phonological acquisition. In: ''Radical: A Journal of Phonology'' ''3'', 346–384.</ref> Alternative forms could be 'mi(ne)', 'ti(ne)', 'sine', as only the roundness parameter (cf. [y] and [i] in the IPA) distinguishes them from the original neologisms suggested by Alpheratz. 'si(ne)' could be pronounced with an '-ne' ending to avoid homophony with 'si' (i. e. 'if'). Similar-sounding possessive adjectives can be found in Spanish ('mi'), in English ('my'), in Swedish ('min', 'din', 'sin', the last one being a gender-neutral reflexive possessive pronoun),<ref>Duolingo Wiki: ''Swedish Skills. Possessives''. Online at:https://duolingo.fandom.com/wiki/Swedish_Skill:Possessives (18.12.2023).</ref> in Norwegian,<ref>Norwegian University of Science and Technology (no data): ''8 Grammar. Possessives''. Online at: https://www.ntnu.edu/now/8/grammar (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref>  in Swiss-German,<ref>Klaudia, K. (2017): ''Schweizerdeutsch. Schlüssel zu den Übungen.'' Online at: https://silo.tips/download/schweizerdeutsch-schlssel-zu-den-bungen (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref>  and in other Germanic languages. As 60% of of humans are multilingual,<ref>McGibney, S. (2023): ''What Percentage of the World’s Population is Bilingual? Introduction to Bilingualism: Exploring the Global Language Diversity''. Online at: https://www.newsdle.com/blog/world-population-bilingual-percentage (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref> cross-linguistic influence could be used to facilitate the memorization and adoption of neologisms.<ref>Van Dijk, C./Van Wonderen, E./Koutamanis, E./Kootstra, G.J./Dijkstra, T./Unsworth, S. (2022): Cross-linguistic influence in simultaneous and early sequential bilingual children: a meta-analysis. In: ''J. Child Lang.'' ''49'', 897–929. 10.1017/S0305000921000337.</ref><ref>Van Dijk, C./Dijkstra, T./Unsworth, S. (2022): Cross-linguistic influence during online sentence processing in bilingual children. In: ''Bilingualism'' ''25'', 691–704. 10.1017/S1366728922000050.</ref>


    ==== Demonstrative adjective ====
    ====Demonstrative adjective====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    !Masculine
    !Masculine
    !Feminine
    !Feminine  
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    Line 258: Line 260:
    La vie en Queer proposes 'cet', which sounds the same as the feminine 'cette'; Divergenres retains 'cèx', but notes that it sounds like the word 'sexe'. A third possibility is to voice or to devoice the final consonant of the feminine word, for instance turning [t] to [d], or [g] to [k]. This would allow the word to remain easily recognizable while being distinct from both the masculine and  the feminine forms. This approach has the advantage of minimizing misunderstandings and memorization effort.
    La vie en Queer proposes 'cet', which sounds the same as the feminine 'cette'; Divergenres retains 'cèx', but notes that it sounds like the word 'sexe'. A third possibility is to voice or to devoice the final consonant of the feminine word, for instance turning [t] to [d], or [g] to [k]. This would allow the word to remain easily recognizable while being distinct from both the masculine and  the feminine forms. This approach has the advantage of minimizing misunderstandings and memorization effort.


    === Non personal pronouns ===
    ===Non personal pronouns===


    ==== Possessive pronouns ====
    ====Possessive pronouns====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    !
    !
    Line 282: Line 284:
    Currently, there is no established combination of definite article and possessive pronoun. In this table, the definite article "lae" is simply paired with the possessive pronoun "mienn" for morphological reasons, as both words are of the analytic gender-neutral type. This also applies to the definite article "lo" and the possessive pronoun "miem", both of which are of the synthetic type.
    Currently, there is no established combination of definite article and possessive pronoun. In this table, the definite article "lae" is simply paired with the possessive pronoun "mienn" for morphological reasons, as both words are of the analytic gender-neutral type. This also applies to the definite article "lo" and the possessive pronoun "miem", both of which are of the synthetic type.


    ==== Demonstrative pronouns ====
    ====Demonstrative pronouns====


    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    !
    !
    !Masculine
    ! Masculine  
    !Feminine
    !Feminine
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral  
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral  
    |-
    |-
    !Singular
    !Singular
    Line 304: Line 306:
    |}
    |}


    ==== Indefinite pronouns ====
    ====Indefinite pronouns====


    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    Line 311: Line 313:
    !Feminine
    !Feminine
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral  
    |-
    |-
    !aucun·e
    !aucun·e
    |aucun <small>[ok<u>œ̃</u>]/[ok<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |aucun <small>[ok<u>œ̃</u>]/[ok<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |aucune <small>[oky<u>n</u>]</small>
    |aucune <small>[oky<u>n</u>]</small>
    |aucunn <small>[ok<u>œ̃n</u>]/[ok<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>, aucueune <small>[ok<u>œn</u>]</small>
    |aucueune <small>[ok<u>œn</u>]</small>
    |aucan <small>[okɑ̃]/[okan]</small>
    |''aucan'' <small>[okɑ̃]/[okan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !chacun·e
    !chacun·e
    |chacun <small>[ʃak<u>œ̃</u>/[ʃak<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |chacun <small>[ʃak<u>œ̃</u>/[ʃak<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |chacune <small>[ʃaky<u>n</u>]</small>
    |chacune <small>[ʃaky<u>n</u>]</small>
    |chacunn <small>[ʃak<u>œ̃n</u>]/[ʃak<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>, chacueune <small>[ʃak<u>œn</u>]</small>
    |chacueune <small>[ʃak<u>œn</u>]</small>
    |chacan <small>[ʃakɑ̃]/[ʃakan]</small>
    |''chacan'' <small>[ʃakɑ̃]/[ʃakan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !certain·e
    !certain·e
    |certain <small>[sɛʁt<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |certain <small>[sɛʁt<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |certaine <small>[sɛʁtɛ<u>n</u>]</small>
    |certaine <small>[sɛʁtɛ<u>n</u>]</small>
    |certainn <small>[sɛʁt<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>
    |
    |certan <small>[sɛʁtɑ̃]/[sɛʁtan]</small>
    |''certan'' <small>[sɛʁtɑ̃]/[sɛʁtan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !tout·e
    !tout·e
    Line 346: Line 348:
    |quelqu'un <small>[kɛlk<u>œ̃</u>]/[kɛlk<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |quelqu'un <small>[kɛlk<u>œ̃</u>]/[kɛlk<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |quelqu'une <small>[kɛlky<u>n</u>]</small>
    |quelqu'une <small>[kɛlky<u>n</u>]</small>
    |quelqu'unn <small>[kɛlk<u>œ̃n</u>]/[kɛlk<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>, quelqu'eune <small>[kɛlk<u>œn</u>]</small>
    |quelqu'eune <small>[kɛlk<u>œn</u>]</small>
    |
    |quelqu'an <small>[kɛlkɑ̃]/[kɛlkan]</small>
    |}
    |}
    The indefinite pronoun 'quelqu'une' is extremely rare in modern French and its pendant 'quelqu'un' not necessarily perceived as masculine, thus it is not clear how essential the degendering of this pronoun is.  
    The indefinite pronoun 'quelqu'une' is extremely rare in modern French and its pendant 'quelqu'un' not necessarily perceived as masculine,<ref>Liam (2023): Coming out day. 11.10.2023. Mon vécu de coming out. In: ''ekivock.nb'' (Instagram account). Online at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CyP-j_Tobbj/?img_index=3.</ref> thus it is not clear how essential the degendering of this pronoun is.  


    === Nouns and adjectives ===
    ===Nouns and adjectives ===
    Words such as 'professionnel' and 'professionnelle', which are orally epicene and, thus, indistinguishable in speech, are not included; the use of their shortened doublet form enables inclusivity and gender-neutrality in written language.
    Words such as 'professionnel' and 'professionnelle', which are orally epicene and, thus, indistinguishable in speech, are not included; the use of their shortened doublet form enables inclusivity and gender-neutrality in written language.


    ==== Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix' ====
    ==== Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix'====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix'
    |+Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix'
    !
    !
    !Masculine
    !Masculine
    !Feminine
    !Feminine  
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    Line 377: Line 379:
    !-eur/-_resse<sup>1</sup>
    !-eur/-_resse<sup>1</sup>
    |docteur
    |docteur
    |doct<u>o</u>resse<ref>Doctoresse Joséphine Tornay. Online at: https://cm-latour.ch/team/josephine-tornay-medecine-interne-generale/. Very common Swiss French denomination for female doctors.</ref>
    |doct<u>o</u>resse<ref>Doctoresse Joséphine Tornay. Online at: https://cm-latour.ch/team/josephine-tornay-medecine-interne-generale/ (retrieved 18.12.2023). 'Doctoresse' is a very common Swiss French denomination for female doctors.</ref>
    |''docteuresse''
    |''docteuresse''
    |doctaire
    |doctaire
    Line 383: Line 385:
    !-eur/-_resse<sup>2</sup>
    !-eur/-_resse<sup>2</sup>
    |enchanteur
    |enchanteur
    |enchant<u>e</u>resse
    | enchant<u>e</u>resse
    |''enchanteuresse''
    |''enchanteuresse''
    |enchantaire
    |enchantaire
    Line 390: Line 392:
    |maître
    |maître
    |maîtresse
    |maîtresse
    |''maîtré''/maîtrè (or maîtræ)
    |maîtré/maîtrè (or maîtræ)
    |maîtrexe
    |maîtrexe
    |-
    |-
    Line 396: Line 398:
    |connard
    |connard
    |connasse
    |connasse
    |
    |connarsse
    |connarde
    |connarde
    |}
    |}
    The analytic gender-neutral forms derived from words that originate from Latin '-or' and '-rix' are already being used,<ref name=":14">Viennot, Eliane (2023): Pour un langage non sexiste ! Acteurice, visiteureuse... Des néologismes de plus en plus employés. Online at: https://www.elianeviennot.fr/Langue-mots.html.</ref> although they have not been officially recognized by any French dictionary yet. Some podcasts where you can hear them are ''Les Couilles sur la table'', ''Parler comme jamais'' and ''Papatriarcat''.
    The analytic gender-neutral forms derived from words that originate from Latin '-or' and '-rix' are already being used,<ref name=":14">Viennot, E. (2023): ''Pour un langage non sexiste ! Acteurice, visiteureuse... Des néologismes de plus en plus employés''. Online at: https://www.elianeviennot.fr/Langue-mots.html (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref> although they have not been officially recognized by any French dictionary yet. Some podcasts where you can hear them are ''Les Couilles sur la table'', ''Parler comme jamais'' and ''Papatriarcat''.


    Synthetic gender-neutral forms have the advantage of preserving the original syllable number of the word, making them less cumbersome than analytic forms. Moreover, the '-aire' suffix does already exist in contemporary French, forming epicene nouns like 'un·e destinataire', 'un·e secrétaire', 'un·e volontaire', 'un·e bibliothécaire', etc. However, several psycholinguistic studies conducted in French<ref>Brauer, M., and Landry, M. (2008): Un ministre peut-il tomber enceinte? L'impact du générique masculin sur les représentations mentales. In: ''L'Année Psychol''. 108, 243-272. DOI: 10.4074/S0003503308002030.</ref><ref>Xiao, H., Strickland, B., and Peperkamp, S. (2023): How fair is gender-fair language? Insights from gender ratio estimations in French. In: ''J. Lang. Soc. Psychol''. 42, 82-106. DOI: 10.1177/0261927X221084643.</ref> and in German<ref>Stahlberg, D., Sczesny, S., and Braun, F. (2001): Name your favorite musician: effects of masculine generics and of their alternatives in German. In: ''J. Lang. Soc. Psychol''. 20, 464-469. DOI: 10.1177/0261927X01020004004.</ref> have found that "gender-unmarked forms are not fully effective in neutralizing the masculine bias"<ref name=":15">Spinelli, Elsa/Chevrot, Jean-Pierre/Varnet, Léo (2023): Neutral is not fair enough: testing the efficiency of different language gender-fair strategies. In: ''Front. Psychol.'' 14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1256779.</ref> and that "contracted double forms [such as acteur·ice] are more effective in promoting gender balance compared to gender-unmarked forms."<ref name=":15" /> Regarding this issue, specifically, analytic gender-neutral forms could then be a more effective solution than synthetic ones.
    Synthetic gender-neutral forms have the advantage of preserving the original syllable number of the word, making them less cumbersome than analytic forms. Moreover, the '-aire' suffix does already exist in contemporary French, forming epicene nouns like 'un·e destinataire', 'un·e secrétaire', 'un·e volontaire', 'un·e bibliothécaire', etc. However, several psycholinguistic studies conducted in French<ref>Brauer, M./Landry, M. (2008): Un ministre peut-il tomber enceinte? L'impact du générique masculin sur les représentations mentales. In: ''L'Année Psychol''. ''108'', 243–272. 10.4074/S0003503308002030.</ref><ref>Xiao, H./Strickland, B./Peperkamp, S. (2023): How fair is gender-fair language? Insights from gender ratio estimations in French. In: ''J. Lang. Soc. Psychol''. ''42'', 82–106. 10.1177/0261927X221084643.</ref> and in German<ref>Stahlberg, D./Sczesny, S./Braun, F. (2001): Name your favorite musician: effects of masculine generics and of their alternatives in German. In: ''J. Lang. Soc. Psychol''. ''20'', 464–469. 10.1177/0261927X01020004004.</ref> have found that "gender-unmarked forms are not fully effective in neutralizing the masculine bias"<ref name=":15">Spinelli, E./Chevrot, J.-P./Varnet, L. (2023): Neutral is not fair enough: testing the efficiency of different language gender-fair strategies. In: ''Front. Psychol.'' ''14.'' 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1256779.</ref> and that "contracted double forms [such as acteur·ice] are more effective in promoting gender balance compared to gender-unmarked forms."<ref name=":15" /> Regarding this issue, specifically, analytic gender-neutral forms could then be a more effective solution than synthetic ones.


    ==== Endings with '-x' in the masculine ====
    ====Endings with '-x' in the masculine====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Endings from latin '-ōsus'<ref>CNRTL (2012): ''-EUX, élément formant''. Online at: https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/-eux.</ref>
    |+Endings from latin '-ōsus'<ref>CNRTL (2012): ''-EUX, élément formant''. Online at: https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/-eux (retrieved 15.12.2023).</ref>
    !
    !
    !Masculine
    !Masculine
    Line 412: Line 414:
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    |-
    |-
    !-eux/-euse
    ! -eux/-euse
    |amoureux
    |amoureux
    |amoureuse
    |amoureuse
    |
    |amoureuseux
    |amoureuxe [amuʁøks]
    |amoureuxe [amuʁøks]
    amouré·e
    |-
    |-
    !-eux/-esse
    !-eux/-esse
    Line 444: Line 447:
    |douxe
    |douxe
    |}
    |}
    The synthetic gender-neutral forms in which the silent consonant of the masculine form becomes audible mantain the original number of syllables. They have an audible suffix, like the feminine forms do, without that suffix being the same as the feminine. This places them between the feminine and the masculine forms. Additionally, the fact that the audible consonant in gender-neutral form matches the consonant in the masculine suffix could facilitate the learning of these neologisms for literate French speakers. However, in cases where the masculine does not contain a silent <x> and the feminine has a distinctive suffix, such as with 'dieu, déesse', adopting the analytic approach may be more consistent in terms of spelling and inclusivity (see previous paragraph).
    The synthetic gender-neutral forms in which the silent consonant of the masculine form becomes audible mantain the original number of syllables. They have an audible suffix, like the feminine forms do, without that suffix being the same as the feminine. Additionally, the fact that the audible consonant in gender-neutral form matches the consonant in the masculine suffix could facilitate the learning of these neologisms for literate French speakers. However, in cases where the masculine does not contain a silent <x> and the feminine has a distinctive suffix, such as with 'dieu, déesse', adopting the analytic approach may be more consistent in terms of spelling and inclusivity (see previous paragraph).


    ==== Endings with nasal vowels in the masculine form ====
    ====Endings with nasal vowels in the masculine form====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Endings with nasal vowels in the masculine form
    |+ Endings with nasal vowels in the masculine form
    |-
    |-
    !
    !
    !Masculine
    !Masculine
    !Feminine
    ! Feminine
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    ! Analytic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    |-
    |-
    !-ain/-aine
    !-ain/-aine
    |écrivain <small>[ekʁiv<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    | écrivain <small>[Ekʁiv<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |écrivaine <small>[ekʁivɛ<u>n</u>]</small>
    |écrivaine <small>[Ekʁivɛ<u>n</u>]</small>
    |écrivainn <small>[ekʁiv<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>
    |
    |''écrivan''
    |''écrivan'' <small>[Ekʁivɑ̃]/[Ekʁivan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !-ain/-ine
    !-ain/-ine  
    |copain <small>[kɔp<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |copain <small>[kɔp<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |copine <small>[kɔpi<u>n</u>]</small>
    |copine <small>[kɔpi<u>n</u>]</small>
    |copainn <small>[kɔp<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>, ''cop<u>aine</u>'' <small>[kɔpɛn]</small>
    |''cop<u>aine</u>'' <small>[kɔpɛn]</small>
    |
    |copan <small>[kɔpɑ̃]/[kɔpan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !-in/-ine
    !-in/-ine
    |cousin <small>[kuz<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |cousin <small>[kuz<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |cousine <small>[kuzi<u>n</u>]</small>
    |cousine <small>[kuzi<u>n</u>]</small>
    |cousinn <small>[kuz<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>
    |''cousaine'' <small>[kuz<u>ɛn</u>]</small>
    |''cousaine'' <small>[kuzɛn]</small>
    |cousan <small>[kuzɑ̃]/[kuzan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !-an/-anne
    !-an/-anne
    |paysan <small>[pɛiz<u>ɑ̃</u>]</small>
    |paysan <small>[pɛiz<u>ɑ̃</u>]</small>
    |paysanne <small>[pɛiza<u>n</u>]</small>
    |paysanne <small>[pɛiza<u>n</u>]</small>
    |paysann <small>[pɛiz<u>ɑ̃n</u>]</small>
    |
    |''paysaine'' <small>[pɛizɛn]</small>
    |paysaine <small>[pɛizɛn]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !-ien/-ienne
    !-ien/-ienne
    |citoyen <small>[sitwaj<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |citoyen <small>[sitwaj<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |citoyenne <small>[sitwajɛ<u>n</u>]</small>
    |citoyenne <small>[sitwajɛ<u>n</u>]</small>
    |citoyenn <small>[sitwaj<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>
    |
    |''citoyan''
    |''citoyan'' <small>[sitwajɑ̃]/[sitwajan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !-un/-une<sup>1</sup>
    !-un/-une<sup>1</sup>
    |brun <small>[bʁ<u>œ̃</u>]/[bʁ<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |brun <small>[bʁ<u>œ̃</u>]/[bʁ<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |brune <small>[bʁy<u>n</u>]</small>
    |brune <small>[bʁy<u>n</u>]</small>
    |brunn <small>[bʁ<u>œ̃n</u>]/[bʁ<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>
    |breune, brunn <small>[bʁ<u>œ̃n</u>]/[bʁ<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>
    |braine, ''bran''
    |braine, ''bran'' <small>[bʁɑ̃]/[bʁan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !-un/-une<sup>2</sup>
    !-un/-une<sup>2</sup>
    |opportun <small>[ɔpɔʁt<u>œ̃</u>]/[ɔpɔʁt<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |opportun <small>[ɔpɔʁt<u>œ̃</u>]/[ɔpɔʁt<u>ɛ̃</u>]</small>
    |opportune <small>[ɔpɔʁty<u>n</u>]</small>
    |opportune <small>[ɔpɔʁty<u>n</u>]</small>
    |opportunn <small>[ɔpɔʁt<u>œ̃n</u>]/[ɔpɔʁt<u>ɛ̃n</u>]</small>
    |opporteune, opportaine <small>[ɔpɔʁt<u>ɛn</u>]</small>
    |opportaine
    | opportan <small>[ɔpɔʁtɑ̃]/[ɔpɔʁtan]</small>
    |-
    |-
    !-on/-onne
    !-on/-onne
    |mignon <small>[miɲ<u>õ</u>]</small>
    |mignon <small>[miɲ<u>õ</u>]</small>
    |mignonne <small>[miɲɔ<u>n</u>]</small>
    |mignonne <small>[miɲɔ<u>n</u>]</small>
    |mignonn <small>[miɲ<u>õn]</u></small>
    |migneune [miɲœn]
    |mignaine, ''mignan''
    |mignaine, ''mignan'' <small>[miɲɑ̃]/[miɲan]</small>
    |}
    |}
    The '-aine' suffix has gained popularity. However, its use in monosyllabic words like 'brun·e' may hinder comprehension, which could explain why 'bran', a form that preserves the nasality of the final vowel while only changing its place of articulation, is more widespread. Words with a '-ien/-ienne' (and obviously also '-ain/-aine') suffix cannot form a synthetic gender-neutral form with '-aine', as this would result in a word pronounced exactly the same way as the feminine one (cf. 'citoyenne'). Here again, the synthetical neutral forms created with '-an' only retain a masculine phonetic trait (i. e. its manner of articulation — vocalic — and its nasality trait — which is positive). Theoretically, this could lead to similar issues as discussed in the Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix' subchapter. The same could be true with synthetic gender-neutral forms ending in '-aine', but this time in favour of the feminine. However, even though the suffix '-aine' could sound feminine, the resulting form is still easily distinguishable from the original one, since the vowels implied are oral and not nasal, and can therefore be less easily mistaken for mispronunciations — while 'écrivan', 'citoyan' and 'bran' could be (for more information, see the Indefinite and definite article subchapter).
    The '-aine' suffix has gained popularity. However, its use in monosyllabic words like 'brun·e' may hinder comprehension, which could explain why 'bran', a form that preserves the nasality of the final vowel while only changing its place of articulation, is more widespread. Words with a '-ien/-ienne' (and obviously also '-ain/-aine') suffix cannot form a synthetic gender-neutral form with '-aine', as this would result in a word pronounced exactly the same way as the feminine one (cf. 'citoyenne'). Here, the synthetical neutral forms created with '-an' only retain masculine phonetic traits (i. e. its manner of articulation — vocalic — and its nasality trait — which is positive). Theoretically, this could lead to similar issues as discussed in the Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix' subchapter. The same could be true with synthetic gender-neutral forms ending in '-aine', but this time in favour of the feminine. However, even though the suffix '-aine' could sound feminine, the resulting form is still easily distinguishable from the original one, since the vowels implied are oral and not nasal, and can therefore be less easily mistaken for mispronunciations — while 'écrivan', 'citoyan' and 'bran' could be (for more information, see the Indefinite and definite article subchapter).


    ==== Endings with silent consonant X in the masculine and audible consonant X in the feminine ====
    ====Endings with silent consonant X in the masculine and audible consonant X in the feminine====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Endings with silent (♂︎) and audible consonant (♀︎)
    |+Endings with silent (♂︎) and audible consonant (♀︎)
    !
    !
    !Masculine
    !Masculine  
    !Feminine
    !Feminine
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    Line 521: Line 524:
    |pâlode, pâlat, pâlasse
    |pâlode, pâlat, pâlasse
    |-
    |-
    !-d/-de
    !-d/-de  
    |grand
    |grand
    |grande
    |grande
    Line 531: Line 534:
    |inquiète
    |inquiète
    |
    |
    |inquiède
    | inquiède  
    |-
    |-
    !-g/gue
    !-g/gue
    Line 539: Line 542:
    |oblonk
    |oblonk
    |-
    |-
    !-er/-ière
    !-er/-ière  
    |premier <small>[pʁəmj<u>e</u>]</small>
    |premier <small>[pʁəmj<u>e</u>]</small>
    |première <small>[pʁəmjɛ<u>ʁ</u>]</small>
    |première <small>[pʁəmjɛ<u>ʁ</u>]</small>
    Line 569: Line 572:
    |base
    |base
    |}
    |}
    As the table demonstrates, no approach has achieved widespread acceptance among this category of nouns and adjectives. As discussed in the Demonstrative adjective-subchapter, one intuitive approach to creating a gender-neutral form involves voicing or devoicing the silent consonant of the masculine form while making it audible in the neologism. However, masculine words ending in a silent <nowiki><s> pose a challenge: when put in the feminine form, the <s> can either become a voiced sibilant [z] or a voiceless sibilant [s] (the outcome [ʃ] is irrelevant in this issue). This inconsistency means that the silent <s> of the masculine form can represent either a voiced or a voiceless sound. While the silent consonants of other words can simply be transformed into their voiceless counterparts to differentiate them from the feminine, creating gender-neutral forms from words like "antillais·e" and "bas·e" requires more careful consideration. If the feminine form is pronounced with an [s], the pronunciation of the gender-neutral form must be [z] to avoid homophony; conversely, if the feminine form is pronounced [z], the gender-neutral form's pronunciation must be [s] to maintain distinctiveness.</nowiki>
    As the table demonstrates, no approach has achieved widespread acceptance among this category of nouns and adjectives. As discussed in the Demonstrative adjective subchapter, one intuitive approach to creating a gender-neutral form involves making the silent consonant of the masculine form audible in the neologism while voicing or devoicing it, so that its pronunciation is different from the feminine form — e. g.: 'palôt' → 'palôte' (sounds like 'pâlotte') → 'pâlode' . However, masculine words ending in a silent <nowiki><s> pose a challenge: when put in the feminine form, the <s> can either become a voiced sibilant [z] or a voiceless sibilant [s] (the outcome [ʃ] is irrelevant in this issue). This inconsistency means that the silent <s> of the masculine form can represent either a voiced or a voiceless sound. While the silent consonants of other words can simply be transformed into their voiceless resp. voiced counterparts to differentiate them from the feminine, creating gender-neutral forms from words like "antillais·e" and "bas·e" requires more careful consideration. If the feminine form is pronounced with a [s], the pronunciation of the gender-neutral form must be [z] to avoid homophony; conversely, if the feminine form is pronounced [z], the gender-neutral form's pronunciation must be [s] to maintain distinctiveness.</nowiki>


    ==== Endings with a rounded vowel in the masculine and '-_(l)le' in the feminine ====
    ====Endings with a rounded vowel in the masculine and '-_(l)le' in the feminine====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Endings with a rounded vowel (♂︎) and '-_(l)le' (♀︎)
    |+Endings with a rounded vowel (♂︎) and '-_(l)le' (♀︎)
    !
    !
    !Masculine
    ! Masculine
    !Feminine
    !Feminine
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    Line 584: Line 587:
    |jumelle
    |jumelle
    |''jumelleau'', jumeaulle
    |''jumelleau'', jumeaulle
    |
    |jumal<ref>Wiki LGBTQIA FR (2023): ''Néopronoms''. Online at: https://lgbtqia.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Neopronoms (retrieved 11.01.2024).</ref>
    |-
    |-
    !-ou/-olle
    !-ou/-olle
    Line 604: Line 607:
    |
    |
    |}
    |}
    The pronunciation of /a/ as [ɔ] in Canadian French can lead to ambiguity in gender-neutral forms like "spéciaules," as they could be interpreted as the feminine singular and plural, or masculine singular form of "spécial·e."
    The pronunciation of /a/ as [ɔ] in Canadian French can lead to ambiguity in gender-neutral forms like 'spéciaules', as they could be interpreted as the feminine singular and plural, or masculine singular form of 'spécial·e'.


    ==== Endings with consonant X in the masculine and consonant X with phonetic change triggered by presence of final '-e' in the feminine ====
    ==== Endings with consonant X in the masculine and consonant X with phonetic change triggered by presence of final '-e' in the feminine====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Masculine consonant X and feminin consonant X modified by '-e'
    |+Masculine consonant X and feminin consonant X modified by '-e'
    Line 616: Line 619:
    |-
    |-
    !-c/-che
    !-c/-che
    |sec
    |sec  
    |sèche
    |sèche
    |seckèche, sèchec
    | seckèche, sèchec
    |
    |
    |-
    |-
    Line 627: Line 630:
    |
    |
    |}
    |}
    Florence Ashley argues that the order in which the feminine and masculine morphemes are combined does not matter.<ref name=":5" /> Usage, intelligibleness and personal preference ultimately determine which forms will gain traction. However, the prosodic sequencing of syllables in French can impact intelligibility. For instance, the pronunciation of 'naïvif' (neutral form) as [na'i'vif], contrary to 'naïfive', the end of the word is acoustically identical to 'vif' (i. e. 'vivacious') and can thus lead to confusion.
    Florence Ashley argues that the order in which the feminine and masculine morphemes are combined does not matter.<ref name=":5" /> Usage, intelligibleness and personal preference ultimately determine which forms will gain traction. However, the prosodic sequencing of syllables in French can impact intelligibility. For instance, in the pronunciation of 'naïvif' (neutral form) as [na'i'<u>vif</u>], contrary to 'naïfive', the end of the word is acoustically identical to 'vif' (i. e. 'vivacious') and can thus lead to confusion.


    ==== Some gender-neutral nouns from irregular substantives ====
    ==== Some gender-neutral nouns from irregular substantives====
    {| class="wikitable"
    {| class="wikitable"
    |+Irregular substantives
    |+Irregular substantives
    !Masculine
    !Masculine
    !Feminine
    !Feminine
    !Analytic gender-neutral
    !Analytic gender-neutral  
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    !Synthetic gender-neutral
    |-
    |-
    Line 645: Line 648:
    |héroïne
    |héroïne
    |héroïnos
    |héroïnos
    |héroan <small>[eʁoɑ̃]/[eʁoan]</small>, héroal
    |héroan <small>[Eʁoɑ̃]/[Eʁoan]</small>, héroal
    |-
    |-
    |frère
    |frère
    Line 658: Line 661:
    |}
    |}


    == Illustrative narrative text with neologisms ==
    ==Illustrative narrative text with neologisms==
    The neologisms that a primarily depicted here are the ones that are analytical — as they have been shown to be cognitively more inclusive than some synthetic ones — easier to pronounce, cross-linguistically relevant or the most widespread.
    Neologisms from different paradigms and approaches are depicted here.


    ''"Lae maîtré accueillent les enfants et leur demande de prendre place. La leçon du jour concerne les métiers. L’instituteurice interroge les élèves sur leurs souhaits professionnels et les professions exercées par les membres de leur famille. An élève dans la deuxième rangée prend la parole :''
    ''"Lae maîtrè accueillent les enfants et leur demande de prendre place. La leçon du jour concerne les métiers. L’instituteurice interroge les élèves sur leurs souhaits professionnels et les professions exercées par les membres de leur famille. Eune élève dans la deuxième rangée prend la parole :''
    * Plus tard, j’aimerais travailler en tant qu’infirmiér ou chirurgienn, parce que mi frœur aîné·e, Amel, est an brillande médecin à l’hôpital de Lyon et que je l’admire beaucoup. Malheureusement, iel est très occupé·e en ce moment et je ne peux lae voir et passer du temps avec ellui que le week-end.
    *Plus tard, j’aimerais travailler en tant qu’infirmiér ou chirurgian, parce que mi frœur aîné·e, Amel, est eune brillande médecin à l’hôpital de Lyon et que je l’admire beaucoup. Malheureusement, al est très occupé·e en ce moment et je ne peux lo voir et passer du temps avec ael que le week-end.


    ''An autre élève réagit :''
    ''An autre élève réagit :''


    * Quand j’étais à l’hôpital parce qu’il y avait un problème avec mon glucomètre, lae docteuresse qui s’est occupé·e de moi m’a dit qu’iel s’appelait Amel ! Est-ce que ton adelphe est rouxe, par hasard ?
    *Quand j’étais à l’hôpital parce qu’il y avait un problème avec mon glucomètre, li docteuresse qui s’est occupé·e de moi m’a dit qu’iel s’appelait Amel ! Est-ce que ton adelphe est rouxe, par hasard ?
    * Non, iel est pas rouxe, mais iel se teint régulièrement les cheveux avec du henné !
    *Non, al est pas rouxe, mais al se teint régulièrement les cheveux avec du henné !
    * Alors je connais ti frœur ! Moi, quand je serai grante, j’aimerais m’occuper aussi bien des autres que le fait Amel. J’aimerais devenir éducateurice spécialisé·e.
    *Alors je suis sur·e que c'était tan frœur ! Moi, quand je serai grante, j’aimerais m’occuper aussi bien des autres que le fait Amel. J’aimerais devenir éducataire spécialisé·e.
    * Moi aussi j’adore aider les autres ! Souvent, le matin, j’aide mi jumeaulle à s’habiller, à préparer sa récré et à mettre ses chaussures, parce qu’iel a un chromosome de plus que moi alors certaines choses sont moins faciles pour ellui. Il faut être patiende et très douxe parce qu’iel fait pas ça exprès ! J’écrirai des livres sur ce dont les personnes qui réfléchissent différemment ont besoin et je découvrirai pourquoi elles pensent comme ça : du coup, quand je serai vieuille, je serai écrivainn-chercheureuse.
    *Moi aussi j’adore aider les autres ! Souvent, le matin, j’aide mi jumal à s’habiller, à préparer sa récré et à mettre ses chaussures, parce qu’iel a un chromosome de plus que moi alors certaines choses sont moins faciles pour ellui. Je me montre toujours patiende et douxe parce qu’iel fait pas ça exprès ! J’écrirai des livres sur ce dont les personnes qui réfléchissent différemment ont besoin et je découvrirai pourquoi elles pensent comme ça : du coup, quand je serai vieuille, je serai écrivan-chercheureuse.
    * Comment ça, quand tu seras vieilleux ? Tu crois que tu vas commencer à travailler quand ?
    *Comment ça, quand tu seras vieilleux ? Tu crois que tu vas commencer à travailler quand ?
    * Je sais pas, quand je serai adulte, quand je serai vieuille quoi.
    *Je sais pas, quand je serai adulte, quand je serai vieuille, quoi.
    * Ce que tu es mignonn de penser que je suis vieilleux, moi.
    * Ce que tu es mignan de penser que je suis vieilleux, moi, merci bien.
    * (ricanements)
    *(ricanements)
    * Moi, je suis un peu inquiède parce que je sais pas ce que je voudrais être plus tard.
    *Moi, je suis un peu inquiède parce que je ne sais pas ce que je voudrais faire plus tard.
    * Peut-être tes camarades peuvent te donner des idées.
    * Peut-être tes camarades peuvent te donner des idées.
    * Je peux te raconter ce que fait mi cousaine, Anh : comme iel adore les animaux, iel est devenu·e paysann, comme ça iel peut les caresser tous les jours !
    *Je peux te raconter ce que fait mo grante cousaine, Anh : comme al adore les animaux, al est devenu·e paysaine, comme ça al peut les caresser tous les jours !
    * Mi voisinn, à moi, iel est enseignande de Yoruba, parfois iel donne même des cours à domicile.
    * Mi voisaine, à moi, iel est enseignande de Yoruba, et parfois iel donne même des cours à domicile.
    * Mais, ti voisan, je lae connais, iel est anglaisse, iel peut pas enseigner le Yoruba.
    *Mais, je lae connais, tan voisan André·e, al est kazakhstanaisse, ses langues maternelles, c'est le russe et le kazakh, al peut pas enseigner le Yoruba.
    * Bien sûr qu’iel peut ! Tu as pas besoin d’avoir une nationalité spécifique pour savoir une langue ! La preuve, moi je suis allemante et italienn, mais je parle que français.
    *Bien sûr qu’iel peut ! Tu as pas besoin d’avoir une nationalité spécifique pour savoir une langue ! La preuve, moi je suis allemante et italian, mais je parle que français.
    * On a discuté de beaucoup de métiers dans le monde du social. Est-ce que vous connaissez des gens dans des domaines plus techniques ?
    *On a discuté de beaucoup de métiers dans le monde du social. Est-ce que vous connaissez des gens dans des domaines plus techniques ?
    * Oui, mi paman, par exemple, iel travaille en tant qu’ingénieureuse de logiciel. Parfois, iel est de piquet et, ces soirs-là, quand quelque chose tombe en panne, iel devient toude blank et se précipite sur son ordinateur pour réparer le problème. Mapa dit toujours que je dois pas rire de Paman, dans ces moments, mais j’arrive pas à me retenir, la tête qu’iel fait est trop drôle.
    *Oui, mi paman, par exemple, al travaille en tant qu’ingénieureuse de logiciel. Parfois, al est de piquet et, ces soirs-là, quand quelque chose tombe en panne, al devient toude blank et se précipite sur son ordinateur pour réparer le problème. Mapa dit toujours que je dois pas rire de Paman, dans ces moments, mais j’arrive pas à me retenir, la tête qu’al fait est trop drôle.
    * Et ti paman, iel fait quoi ?
    *Et to paman, iel fait quoi ?
    * Ellui, iel est politicienn : iel vérifie que vous continuez à toustes vous comporter en bonns citoyenns !
    *Ellui, iel est politician : iel vérifie que vous continuez à toustes vous comporter en bans citoyans !
    * Tu es bien naïfive si tu penses qu’en général on se comporte en bonns citoyans !
    *Tu es bien naïfive si tu penses qu’en général on se comporte en bans citoyans !
    * Moi, j'ai pas pu parler encore.
    *Moi, j'ai pas pu parler encore.
    * Vas-y, Ezra, on t'écoute.
    *Vas-y, Ariel·le, on t'écoute.
    * Mi tancle, iel est championn de para hockey.
    *Mi tancle, iel est champian de para hockey.
    * C'est pas un métier, ça.
    *C'est pas un métier, ça, le sport.
    * Oh que si ! Iel s'entraîne dur tous les jours, d'ailleurs sine entraîneureuse est très fier·e d'ellui parce qu'iel est an capitainn si engagé·e que son équipe est régulièrement sélectionnée pour les Jeux Paralympiques. Moi, plus tard, j'aimerais aussi être an sportifive de haut niveau, comme ellui.
    *Oh que si ! Iel s'entraîne dur tous les jours, d'ailleurs sine entraîneureuse est très fier·e d'ellui parce qu'iel est an capitan si engagé·e que son équipe est régulièrement sélectionnée pour les Jeux Paralympiques. Moi, plus tard, j'aimerais aussi être an sportifive de haut niveau, comme ellui.
    * Bien, sur ce, je vous propose à toustes d'aller enfiler vos affaires de sport : on se retrouve dans la salle de gymnastique pour une partie de unihockey.
    *Bien, sur ce, je vous propose à toustes d'aller enfiler vos affaires de sport : on se retrouve dans la salle de gymnastique pour une partie de unihockey.
    ''Les élèves :''
    ''Les élèves :''
    * Yes!"
    *Yes!"
     
    ==Discussion==
    According to linguist Roswitha Fischer, citing Renate Bartsch,<ref>Bartsch, R. (1987): ''Sprachnormen: Theorie und Praxis: Studienausgabe''. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. 10.1515/9783110935875.</ref> the adoption of neologisms into a language's lexicon depends on three factors:
     
    #Prestige: The neologism must be championed by a group of influential individuals who hold social, political, and economic power.
    #Written Usage: The neologism must gain traction in written communication, becoming accepted in literature, media, and formal communication.
    #Linguistic Contact: The neologism must circulate in areas where multiple dialects and varieties of the language converge, fostering mutual understanding and assimilation.<ref name=":16">Fischer, R. (1998): ''Lexical Change in Present-Day English. A Corpus-Based Study of the Motivation, Institutionalization, and Productivity of Creative Neologism''. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.</ref>


    == Discussion ==
    Currently, gender-neutral French neologisms lack widespread adoption, even within LGBT and nonbinary communities. Their presence is marginal in written form,<ref>Café aux étoiles. maison d'édition sereine et onirique (no data): ''Littérature''. Online at: https://cafeauxetoiles.fr/litterature/ (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref><ref>Les Ourses à plumes. Webzine féministe (2022): ''Les elfes noirs ne sont jamais noirs (1) : enjeux de la représentation dans les fictions de l'imaginaire''. Online at: https://lesoursesaplumes.info/tag/une/ (retrieved 18.12.2023).</ref> and their usage in spoken language limited. However, the Internet serves as an area for these neologisms to reach a global audience of Francophone speakers from Africa, America, Europe, and minority language communities all around the world. Additionally, descriptive approaches to language (cf. ''Le Robert''), contrary to prescriptive approaches (cf. L'Académie), have lead to the acceptance of one of them — 'iel' — in written discourse.
    According to linguist Roswitha Fischer, citing Renate Bartsch,<ref>Bartsch, Renate (1987): ''Sprachnormen: Theorie und Praxis: Studienausgabe''. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110935875</nowiki>,</ref> the adoption of neologisms into a language's lexicon depends on three factors:


    # Prestige: The neologism must be championed by a group of influential individuals who hold social, political, and economic power.
    For neologisms to gain wider adoption, they must be learnable and user-friendly. This means they should be easy to understand and easy to remember (due to morphological motivation); easy to pronounce while adhering to the phoneme inventory and phonotactics of the language; familiar to the target audience; and responsive to a genuine need.<ref name=":16" /> If these criteria are met, neologisms will start being adopted by avant-garde language users. As these avant-garde figures gather large online communities, the frequency of usage of these neologisms will increase, fostering familiarity among the Francophone community. From then, some of these neologisms could potentially enter the standard vocabulary.
    # Written Usage: The neologism must gain traction in written communication, becoming widely accepted in literature, media, and formal communication.
    # Linguistic Contact: The neologism must circulate in areas where multiple dialects and varieties of the language converge, fostering mutual understanding and assimilation.<ref name=":16">Fischer, Roswitha (1998): ''Lexical Change in Present-Day English. A Corpus-Based Study of the Motivation, Institutionalization, and Productivity of Creative Neologism''. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Online at: <nowiki>https://books.google.ch/books?id=H93nAVbwZwwC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false</nowiki>.</ref>


    Currently, gender-neutral French neologisms lack widespread adoption, even within LGBT and nonbinary communities. Their presence is low in written form,<ref>Café aux étoiles. maison d'édition sereine et onirique (no data): ''Littérature''. Online at: https://cafeauxetoiles.fr/litterature/.</ref><ref>Les Ourses à plumes. Webzine féministe (2022): ''Les elfes noirs ne sont jamais noirs (1) : enjeux de la représentation dans les fictions de l'imaginaire''. Online at: https://lesoursesaplumes.info/tag/une/.</ref> and their usage in spoken language limited. However, the Internet serves as a platform for these neologisms to reach a global audience of Francophone speakers from Africa, America, Europe, and minority language communities all around the world. Additionally, descriptive approaches to language (cf. ''Le Robert''), contrary to prescriptive approaches (cf. L'Académie), have lead to the acceptance of one of them — 'iel' — in written discourse.
    == Main resources ==


    For neologisms to gain wider adoption, they must be learnable and user-friendly. This means they should be easy to understand and easy to remember due to morphological motivation; easy to pronounce while adhering to the phoneme inventory and phonotactics of the language; familiar to the target audience; and responsive to a genuine need.<ref name=":16" /> If these criteria are met, neologisms will start being adopted by avant-garde language users. As these avant-garde figures gather large online communities, the frequency of usage of these neologisms will increase, fostering familiarity among the Francophone community. From then, some of these neologisms could potentially enter the standard vocabulary.
    # ★La vie en Queer (2018): ''Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif''. Online at: https://lavieenqueer.wordpress.com/2018/07/26/petit-dico-de-francais-neutre-inclusif/<nowiki/>.★
    # Divergenres (2021): ''Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive''. Québec. Online at: https://divergenres.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/guide-grammaireinclusive-final.pdf.
    # Wiki Trans (2019): ''Comment parler d'une personne non binaire ?'' Online at: https://wikitrans.co/2019/12/25/comment-parler-dune-personne-non-binaire/.
    # Wiki LGBTQIA FR (2023): ''Néopronoms''. Online at: https://lgbtqia.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Neopronoms.
    # Alpheratz (2018): ''Genre neutre.TABLEAUX RÉCAPITULATIFS de mots de genre neutre (extraits)''. Online at: https://www.alpheratz.fr/linguistique/genre-neutre/.


    ==References==
    ==References ==
    <references />
    <references />
    [[Category:Gender neutral language]]
    [[Category:Gender neutral language]]

    Revision as of 05:10, 11 April 2024

    Gender neutral language

    The French language has two gramatical genders: feminine and masculine. Activists have started seeking solutions to degender the language as much as possible and, therefore, make it more inclusive. These solutions entail neologisms as well as non-neologisms.

    Non-neologisms

    Refeminization

    Prior to the 17th century, French, like Italian, Spanish, and other Romance languages, utilized feminine inflections to distinguish female and male professionals. However, for a range of reasons — both societal, such as misogyny,[1][2] and linguistic[3], as French was being standardized and dialect speakers were expected to learn French — grammarians ensured that these feminine designations were effectively removed from the language.[1]

    Today, many people refer to the contemporary introduction of feminine designations as 'feminization,' believing that these occupational titles are newly coined terms. However, this is not the case, as they are being revived from an earlier iteration of the French language, making 'refeminization'[4] a more accurate term.

    Even though it seems paradoxical, refeminization is part of a movement to degender the French language, as studies in various languages have demonstrated that the generic masculine, despite being considered gender-neutral by French prescriptive grammar ("Selon Le Bon Usage de Maurice Grevisse, l'adjectif se met donc au 'genre indifférencié, c'est-à-dire au masculin'."),[5] is not actually cognitively neutral.[6][7] By incorporating the feminine form of a word, speakers acknowledge the presence of individuals of more genders than just one.

    Masculine Feminine by the Académie Refeminized
    un auteur une auteur(e) une autrice
    un professeur une professeur(e) une professeuse
    un peintre une peintre une peintresse
    un chirurgien une femme chirurgien une chirurgienne

    Doublets

    For example, « Nous prions les étudiantes et (les) étudiants de remettre leur copie à la personne responsable ». Some people don't enjoy the repetition,[8] others consider that the doublets don't encompass all genders,[9] others again are unsure which form to mention first, since the order conveys information about the value the speaker gives to each item.[10]

    Shortened doublets

    The feminine suffix is attached to the masculine, rather than the whole word being repeated (as in classical doublets).[8][9]

    Middle dot Dot Parentheses Slash Dash
    professionnel·les

    professionnel·le·s

    		acteur.rice employé(e) chanteur/euse boulanger-ère

    Epicene person descriptions

    For instance, « Les élèves apprennent leur leçon. »; « L'enfant regarde la télévision. »; « Les juges ont pris leur décision. ». As singular articles indicate gender ('la' and 'le'), this technique works best with plural forms. However, it also works with singular forms if the noun begins with a vowel, because the article automatically becomes "l'...," which does not express gender. A drawback is that there are not epicene occupational titles for all professions or functions.[4]

    In certain Swiss-French varieties, as in the canton of Vaud, masculine and feminine words ending in '-é' resp. '-ée' are pronounced differently (i. e. 'une employée' [ynɑ̃plwaje:]/[ynɑ̃plwaje:j] versus 'un employé' [ɛ̃nɑ̃plwaje]/[œ̃nɑ̃plwaje]). However, this linguistically conservative pronunciation is becoming increasingly marginal: it is primarily confined to Switzerland and, in major cities and among younger generations, the pronunciation is gradually converging with the standard French norm, meaning that the distinction between /e/ and /e:/ (or /e:j/, remnant from Franco-Provençal dialects, i. e. Patois, spoken in the region before linguistic homogenization) is being neutralized, resulting in a single phoneme /e/ and causing 'employé' and 'employée' to be pronounced identically. As a result, here, these words are considered orally epicene.

    Monogender epicene nouns and collective terms

    The table below shows gendered language on the left and neutral — i.e. grammatical gender that has nothing to do with biological sex or gender identity — language on the right.

    Collective terms[11]
    Inclusive gendered language Inclusive neutral language
    Les auditrices et auditeurs sont attentifs. L'auditoire est attentif.
    Les spectateurs et spectatrices sont très calmes aujourd'hui. Le public est très calme aujourd'hui.
    Monogender (epicene) nouns[11]
    Explicit binary gender Grammatically fixed gender
    Je ne connais pas cet homme. Je ne connais pas cette personne.
    La mère de Jo ne parle pas le néerlandais. Le parent de Jo ne parle pas le néerlandais.

    Proximity agreement

    Up until the 18th century, the masculine gender did not always take precedence over the feminine in instances where the genders could theoretically be congruent: proximity[12] and free-choice agreement coexisted alongside the masculine-over-feminine rule.[2][3] For a significant portion of Old French history, proximity agreement was the most prevalent method for agreeing adjectives, past participles, etc. (cf. Anglade 1931:172).[13] Today, this agreement could facilitate gender equality in grammar instead of the masculine-over-feminine hierarchy that was suggested in the 17th and 18th century by French grammarians such as Malherbe, Vaugelas, Bouhours and Beauzée:

    « Le genre masculin, étant le plus noble, doit prédominer toutes les fois que le masculin et le féminin se trouvent ensemble. » (Claude Favre de Vaugelas, Remarques sur la langue française, 1647).[1]

    « Lorsque les deux genres se rencontrent, il faut que le plus noble l’emporte. » (Bouhours 1675).[5]

    « Le genre masculin est réputé plus noble que le féminin à cause de la supériorité du mâle sur la femelle. » (Beauzée 1767).[5]

    Masculine-prevails-over-feminine rule Proximity agreement
    Ces œillets et ces roses sont beaux. Ces œillets et ces roses sont belles.
    Les nombreux filles et garçons. Les nombreuses filles et garçons.

    Neologisms

    Personal pronouns

    Subject pronouns

    French only distinguishes gender in the third-person singular (cf. 'elle' and 'il'). Up until the 12th century, French knew the neutral subject pronoun 'el'/'al'.[14] Today, 'el' cannot be reintroduced from Old French as it would sound identical to 'elle', the current feminin subject pronoun. As for 'al', it sounds like 'elle' in spoken Canadian French.[15] It could, however, still be a viable option for the rest of the Francophone community.[16] Nowadays, according to the Guide de rédaction inclusive (2021:14) from the Laval University,[11] the Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive (2021:5) from Divergenres,[4] the Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif (2018) from La vie en Queer,[17] and Wiki Trans (2019),[18] the most widely adopted subject (neo)pronoun is 'iel'. It was added to the prestigious dictionary Le Robert in 2021.[19] Alongside 'iel', Canadian French also uses 'ille'.[4][15] In metropolitan France, the pronoun 'al', proposed by linguist Alpheratz in their book Grammaire du français inclusif (2018), has gained some recognition. The table below presents the primary gender-neutral subject pronouns found in the French-speaking world.

    gender-neutral subject pronouns
    Dominant usage iel [jɛl] ille [ij][15] al
    Peripheral usage ol ul ael

    Clitic and tonic pronouns

    French distinguishes between clitic and tonic pronouns. A clitic is a word that attaches in a syntactically rigid way to another word to form a prosodic unit with it, lacking prosodic as well as distributional autonomy.[20] Currently, there is no prevailing gender-neutral clitic direct object personal pronoun; the most common ones are detailed below.

    Clitic pronouns
    Subject Direct object Indirect object
    il le, (l') lui
    elle la, (l') lui
    iel lae [lae]/lo/lan/[21]li/lu/lia, (l') lui
    ils les leur
    elles les leur
    iels les leur

    Tonic pronouns are also called 'autonomous' because, in opposition to clitics, they form their own prosodic unit and can stand alone in the sentence, hence their distribution is not as fixed as the clitics' one.[20] There are currently two competing systems:[18][17][22] one consists in syncretizing (cf. analogical levelling)[23] clitic and tonic pronouns, following the paradigm of standard French 'elle', which equates keeping the gender-neutral subject pronoun — be it 'iel', 'ille', 'al' or 'ol', etc. — as such; the other approach, exemplified in the table below with 'iel', supports differentiating (cf. analogical extension)[23] clitics from tonic pronouns, thereby aligning with the paradigm of 'il'.

    Analogical extension
    Clitic subject pronoun Tonic pronoun
    il lui
    elle elle
    iel ellui [ɛllɥi]
    ils eux
    elles elles
    iels elleux [ɛllø]

    Determiners

    Indefinite and definite article

    The distinction between 'analytic gender-neutral' versus 'synthetic gender-neutral' is usually referred to as 'inclusif' versus 'neutre'.[4] Compounds — such as 'maon', from 'ma' and 'mon' — and portmanteau words, like 'utilisateurice', could be cognitively interpreted as neutral; at least, there have been no psycholinguistic studies disconfirming this, to the extent that these forms could technically also be called neutral. Furthermore, since gender-neutral forms are inherently inclusive of all genders, there is no reason why they cannot be called that way either. The subsequent interchangeability of these terms makes them unsuitable for differentiating these two methods of creating gender-neutral/gender inclusive words in French. For this reason, the following table distinguishes them based on their morphological properties — blend words being more analytical and non blend words being more synthetic.

    The currently most widely accepted neutral forms are denoted in italics in the table. Apart from them, most of the forms depicted in the tables are not in use. The tables thus merely represent suggestions that have been made for degendering French, and feature the items that have been retained by most blogs, researchers and LGBT communities in the French-speaking world.

    The underlining of phonemes in the IPA transcription of certain words does not carry any phonetic meaning: it is used solely to highlight which phonetic elements from the feminine and masculine forms have been incorporated into the analytic gender-neutral neologism.

    IPA vowel trapezium for standard French
    IPA vowel trapezium for standard French
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    Indefinite article un [œ̃]/[ɛ̃] une [yn] eune [œn] an [ɑ̃]/[an]
    Definite article le la lae [lae], lea [ləa] lo, li, lu, lia

    'an' is quite common, particularly in the [ɑ̃] pronunciation, where it shares a core feature with 'un': both consist solely of a nasal vowel. 'eune' [œn] combines the roundedness and degree of aperture of 'un' [œ̃] with the terminal nasal consonant [n] of 'une'. In metropolitan French, where 'un' is typically pronounced as [ɛ̃], 'eune' shares a phonetic characteristic with 'une' through the final [n], and one with 'un' through the similar degree of aperture of their vocalic nucleus.

    A drawback of 'an' pronounced as [ɑ̃] is its nasality, a factor known for making vowels challenging to distinguish and learn, even for native French speakers.[24] Consequently, [ɑ̃] might be perceived as a mispronunciation of 'un' or simply not distinct enough from 'un' to be recognized as a different morpheme.

    Possessive adjectives

    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    1SG mon ma maon [maõ] man [mɑ̃]/[man], mo, mi(ne), mian [mjɑ̃]
    2SG ton ta taon [taõ] tan [tɑ̃]/[tan], to, ti(ne)
    3SG son sa saon [saõ] san [sɑ̃]/[san], so, si(ne)

    The possessive adjectives 'mon', 'ton', and 'son', which are generally masculine, are also used as feminine possessive adjectives when combined with a feminine noun that begins (phonetically) with a vowel: 'mon amie', 'ton employée', 'son hôtesse', etc. Therefore, there is no need to use a possessive neologism in words starting with vowels, as the masculine and feminine gender are syncretized in this context.

    The pronunciation [sɑ̃] of 'san' is a homophone of 'sang' ('blood'). Alpheratz proposes 'mu(n)', 'tu(n)', 'su(n)'[16] as synthetic forms. However, 'tu(n)' is a homophone of the subject pronoun 'tu', and <u> — i. e. [y] — is a linguistically marked phone.[25][26] Alternative forms could be 'mi(ne)', 'ti(ne)', 'sine', as only the roundness parameter (cf. [y] and [i] in the IPA) distinguishes them from the original neologisms suggested by Alpheratz. 'si(ne)' could be pronounced with an '-ne' ending to avoid homophony with 'si' (i. e. 'if'). Similar-sounding possessive adjectives can be found in Spanish ('mi'), in English ('my'), in Swedish ('min', 'din', 'sin', the last one being a gender-neutral reflexive possessive pronoun),[27] in Norwegian,[28] in Swiss-German,[29] and in other Germanic languages. As 60% of of humans are multilingual,[30] cross-linguistic influence could be used to facilitate the memorization and adoption of neologisms.[31][32]

    Demonstrative adjective

    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral Plural
    ce/cet cette cèd ces

    La vie en Queer proposes 'cet', which sounds the same as the feminine 'cette'; Divergenres retains 'cèx', but notes that it sounds like the word 'sexe'. A third possibility is to voice or to devoice the final consonant of the feminine word, for instance turning [t] to [d], or [g] to [k]. This would allow the word to remain easily recognizable while being distinct from both the masculine and the feminine forms. This approach has the advantage of minimizing misunderstandings and memorization effort.

    Non personal pronouns

    Possessive pronouns

    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    Singular le mien [lə mjɛ̃] la mienne [la mjɛn] lae mienn [lae mjɛ̃n] lo miem
    Plural les miens [le mjɛ̃] les miennes [le mjɛn] les mienns [le mjɛ̃n] les miems

    Currently, there is no established combination of definite article and possessive pronoun. In this table, the definite article "lae" is simply paired with the possessive pronoun "mienn" for morphological reasons, as both words are of the analytic gender-neutral type. This also applies to the definite article "lo" and the possessive pronoun "miem", both of which are of the synthetic type.

    Demonstrative pronouns

    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    Singular celui [səlɥi] celle [sɛl] cellui [sɛlɥi]
    Plural ceux [sø] celles [sɛl] celleux [sɛlø] ceuxes [søks]

    Indefinite pronouns

    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    aucun·e aucun [okœ̃]/[okɛ̃] aucune [okyn] aucueune [okœn] aucan [okɑ̃]/[okan]
    chacun·e chacun [ʃakœ̃/[ʃakɛ̃] chacune [ʃakyn] chacueune [ʃakœn] chacan [ʃakɑ̃]/[ʃakan]
    certain·e certain [sɛʁtɛ̃] certaine [sɛʁtɛn] certan [sɛʁtɑ̃]/[sɛʁtan]
    tout·e tout toute toude
    tous/toutes tous toutes toustes
    quelqu'un·e quelqu'un [kɛlkœ̃]/[kɛlkɛ̃] quelqu'une [kɛlkyn] quelqu'eune [kɛlkœn] quelqu'an [kɛlkɑ̃]/[kɛlkan]

    The indefinite pronoun 'quelqu'une' is extremely rare in modern French and its pendant 'quelqu'un' not necessarily perceived as masculine,[33] thus it is not clear how essential the degendering of this pronoun is.

    Nouns and adjectives

    Words such as 'professionnel' and 'professionnelle', which are orally epicene and, thus, indistinguishable in speech, are not included; the use of their shortened doublet form enables inclusivity and gender-neutrality in written language.

    Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix'

    Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix'
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    -eur/-euse enquêteur enquêteuse enquêteureuse enquêtaire
    -eur/-rice acteur actrice acteurice actaire
    -eur/-_resse1 docteur doctoresse[34] docteuresse doctaire
    -eur/-_resse2 enchanteur enchanteresse enchanteuresse enchantaire
    -e/-esse maître maîtresse maîtré/maîtrè (or maîtræ) maîtrexe
    -ard/-asse connard connasse connarsse connarde

    The analytic gender-neutral forms derived from words that originate from Latin '-or' and '-rix' are already being used,[35] although they have not been officially recognized by any French dictionary yet. Some podcasts where you can hear them are Les Couilles sur la table, Parler comme jamais and Papatriarcat.

    Synthetic gender-neutral forms have the advantage of preserving the original syllable number of the word, making them less cumbersome than analytic forms. Moreover, the '-aire' suffix does already exist in contemporary French, forming epicene nouns like 'un·e destinataire', 'un·e secrétaire', 'un·e volontaire', 'un·e bibliothécaire', etc. However, several psycholinguistic studies conducted in French[36][37] and in German[38] have found that "gender-unmarked forms are not fully effective in neutralizing the masculine bias"[39] and that "contracted double forms [such as acteur·ice] are more effective in promoting gender balance compared to gender-unmarked forms."[39] Regarding this issue, specifically, analytic gender-neutral forms could then be a more effective solution than synthetic ones.

    Endings with '-x' in the masculine

    Endings from latin '-ōsus'[40]
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    -eux/-euse amoureux amoureuse amoureuseux amoureuxe [amuʁøks]

    amouré·e

    -eux/-esse dieu déesse dieuesse dieuxe
    Endings with '-x' (♂︎) and '-[s]' (♀︎)
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    -x/-sse roux rousse rouxe
    -x/-ce doux douce douxe

    The synthetic gender-neutral forms in which the silent consonant of the masculine form becomes audible mantain the original number of syllables. They have an audible suffix, like the feminine forms do, without that suffix being the same as the feminine. Additionally, the fact that the audible consonant in gender-neutral form matches the consonant in the masculine suffix could facilitate the learning of these neologisms for literate French speakers. However, in cases where the masculine does not contain a silent <x> and the feminine has a distinctive suffix, such as with 'dieu, déesse', adopting the analytic approach may be more consistent in terms of spelling and inclusivity (see previous paragraph).

    Endings with nasal vowels in the masculine form

    Endings with nasal vowels in the masculine form
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    -ain/-aine écrivain [Ekʁivɛ̃] écrivaine [Ekʁivɛn] écrivan [Ekʁivɑ̃]/[Ekʁivan]
    -ain/-ine copain [kɔpɛ̃] copine [kɔpin] copaine [kɔpɛn] copan [kɔpɑ̃]/[kɔpan]
    -in/-ine cousin [kuzɛ̃] cousine [kuzin] cousaine [kuzɛn] cousan [kuzɑ̃]/[kuzan]
    -an/-anne paysan [pɛizɑ̃] paysanne [pɛizan] paysaine [pɛizɛn]
    -ien/-ienne citoyen [sitwajɛ̃] citoyenne [sitwajɛn] citoyan [sitwajɑ̃]/[sitwajan]
    -un/-une1 brun [bʁœ̃]/[bʁɛ̃] brune [bʁyn] breune, brunn [bʁœ̃n]/[bʁɛ̃n] braine, bran [bʁɑ̃]/[bʁan]
    -un/-une2 opportun [ɔpɔʁtœ̃]/[ɔpɔʁtɛ̃] opportune [ɔpɔʁtyn] opporteune, opportaine [ɔpɔʁtɛn] opportan [ɔpɔʁtɑ̃]/[ɔpɔʁtan]
    -on/-onne mignon [miɲõ] mignonne [miɲɔn] migneune [miɲœn] mignaine, mignan [miɲɑ̃]/[miɲan]

    The '-aine' suffix has gained popularity. However, its use in monosyllabic words like 'brun·e' may hinder comprehension, which could explain why 'bran', a form that preserves the nasality of the final vowel while only changing its place of articulation, is more widespread. Words with a '-ien/-ienne' (and obviously also '-ain/-aine') suffix cannot form a synthetic gender-neutral form with '-aine', as this would result in a word pronounced exactly the same way as the feminine one (cf. 'citoyenne'). Here, the synthetical neutral forms created with '-an' only retain masculine phonetic traits (i. e. its manner of articulation — vocalic — and its nasality trait — which is positive). Theoretically, this could lead to similar issues as discussed in the Endings from Latin '-or' and '-rix' subchapter. The same could be true with synthetic gender-neutral forms ending in '-aine', but this time in favour of the feminine. However, even though the suffix '-aine' could sound feminine, the resulting form is still easily distinguishable from the original one, since the vowels implied are oral and not nasal, and can therefore be less easily mistaken for mispronunciations — while 'écrivan', 'citoyan' and 'bran' could be (for more information, see the Indefinite and definite article subchapter).

    Endings with silent consonant X in the masculine and audible consonant X in the feminine

    Endings with silent (♂︎) and audible consonant (♀︎)
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    -t/-te pâlot pâlotte pâlode, pâlat, pâlasse
    -d/-de grand grande grante, granxe, gransse
    -iet/iète inquiet inquiète inquiède
    -g/gue oblong oblongue oblonk
    -er/-ière premier [pʁəmje] première [pʁəmjɛʁ] premiérère, premiér [pʁəmjeʁ]
    -c/-che blanc blanche blank
    -s/-se antillais antillaise antillaisse
    -s/-che frais fraîche fraîchais fraisse
    -s/-sse bas basse babasse base

    As the table demonstrates, no approach has achieved widespread acceptance among this category of nouns and adjectives. As discussed in the Demonstrative adjective subchapter, one intuitive approach to creating a gender-neutral form involves making the silent consonant of the masculine form audible in the neologism while voicing or devoicing it, so that its pronunciation is different from the feminine form — e. g.: 'palôt' → 'palôte' (sounds like 'pâlotte') → 'pâlode' . However, masculine words ending in a silent <s> pose a challenge: when put in the feminine form, the <s> can either become a voiced sibilant [z] or a voiceless sibilant [s] (the outcome [ʃ] is irrelevant in this issue). This inconsistency means that the silent <s> of the masculine form can represent either a voiced or a voiceless sound. While the silent consonants of other words can simply be transformed into their voiceless resp. voiced counterparts to differentiate them from the feminine, creating gender-neutral forms from words like "antillais·e" and "bas·e" requires more careful consideration. If the feminine form is pronounced with a [s], the pronunciation of the gender-neutral form must be [z] to avoid homophony; conversely, if the feminine form is pronounced [z], the gender-neutral form's pronunciation must be [s] to maintain distinctiveness.

    Endings with a rounded vowel in the masculine and '-_(l)le' in the feminine

    Endings with a rounded vowel (♂︎) and '-_(l)le' (♀︎)
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    -eau/-elle jumeau jumelle jumelleau, jumeaulle jumal[41]
    -ou/-olle fou folle follou, foulle
    -aux/-ales spéciaux spéciales spécialaux, spéciaules
    -eux/-lle vieux/vieil vieille vieilleux, vieuille

    The pronunciation of /a/ as [ɔ] in Canadian French can lead to ambiguity in gender-neutral forms like 'spéciaules', as they could be interpreted as the feminine singular and plural, or masculine singular form of 'spécial·e'.

    Endings with consonant X in the masculine and consonant X with phonetic change triggered by presence of final '-e' in the feminine

    Masculine consonant X and feminin consonant X modified by '-e'
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    -c/-che sec sèche seckèche, sèchec
    -f/-ve naïf naïve naïfive, naïvif

    Florence Ashley argues that the order in which the feminine and masculine morphemes are combined does not matter.[15] Usage, intelligibleness and personal preference ultimately determine which forms will gain traction. However, the prosodic sequencing of syllables in French can impact intelligibility. For instance, in the pronunciation of 'naïvif' (neutral form) as [na'i'vif], contrary to 'naïfive', the end of the word is acoustically identical to 'vif' (i. e. 'vivacious') and can thus lead to confusion.

    Some gender-neutral nouns from irregular substantives

    Irregular substantives
    Masculine Feminine Analytic gender-neutral Synthetic gender-neutral
    roi reine roine
    héros héroïne héroïnos héroan [Eʁoɑ̃]/[Eʁoan], héroal
    frère sœur frœur, srère adelphe
    Monsieur Madame Monestre

    Illustrative narrative text with neologisms

    Neologisms from different paradigms and approaches are depicted here.

    "Lae maîtrè accueillent les enfants et leur demande de prendre place. La leçon du jour concerne les métiers. L’instituteurice interroge les élèves sur leurs souhaits professionnels et les professions exercées par les membres de leur famille. Eune élève dans la deuxième rangée prend la parole :

    • Plus tard, j’aimerais travailler en tant qu’infirmiér ou chirurgian, parce que mi frœur aîné·e, Amel, est eune brillande médecin à l’hôpital de Lyon et que je l’admire beaucoup. Malheureusement, al est très occupé·e en ce moment et je ne peux lo voir et passer du temps avec ael que le week-end.

    An autre élève réagit :

    • Quand j’étais à l’hôpital parce qu’il y avait un problème avec mon glucomètre, li docteuresse qui s’est occupé·e de moi m’a dit qu’iel s’appelait Amel ! Est-ce que ton adelphe est rouxe, par hasard ?
    • Non, al est pas rouxe, mais al se teint régulièrement les cheveux avec du henné !
    • Alors je suis sur·e que c'était tan frœur ! Moi, quand je serai grante, j’aimerais m’occuper aussi bien des autres que le fait Amel. J’aimerais devenir éducataire spécialisé·e.
    • Moi aussi j’adore aider les autres ! Souvent, le matin, j’aide mi jumal à s’habiller, à préparer sa récré et à mettre ses chaussures, parce qu’iel a un chromosome de plus que moi alors certaines choses sont moins faciles pour ellui. Je me montre toujours patiende et douxe parce qu’iel fait pas ça exprès ! J’écrirai des livres sur ce dont les personnes qui réfléchissent différemment ont besoin et je découvrirai pourquoi elles pensent comme ça : du coup, quand je serai vieuille, je serai écrivan-chercheureuse.
    • Comment ça, quand tu seras vieilleux ? Tu crois que tu vas commencer à travailler quand ?
    • Je sais pas, quand je serai adulte, quand je serai vieuille, quoi.
    • Ce que tu es mignan de penser que je suis vieilleux, moi, merci bien.
    • (ricanements)
    • Moi, je suis un peu inquiède parce que je ne sais pas ce que je voudrais faire plus tard.
    • Peut-être tes camarades peuvent te donner des idées.
    • Je peux te raconter ce que fait mo grante cousaine, Anh : comme al adore les animaux, al est devenu·e paysaine, comme ça al peut les caresser tous les jours !
    • Mi voisaine, à moi, iel est enseignande de Yoruba, et parfois iel donne même des cours à domicile.
    • Mais, je lae connais, tan voisan André·e, al est kazakhstanaisse, ses langues maternelles, c'est le russe et le kazakh, al peut pas enseigner le Yoruba.
    • Bien sûr qu’iel peut ! Tu as pas besoin d’avoir une nationalité spécifique pour savoir une langue ! La preuve, moi je suis allemante et italian, mais je parle que français.
    • On a discuté de beaucoup de métiers dans le monde du social. Est-ce que vous connaissez des gens dans des domaines plus techniques ?
    • Oui, mi paman, par exemple, al travaille en tant qu’ingénieureuse de logiciel. Parfois, al est de piquet et, ces soirs-là, quand quelque chose tombe en panne, al devient toude blank et se précipite sur son ordinateur pour réparer le problème. Mapa dit toujours que je dois pas rire de Paman, dans ces moments, mais j’arrive pas à me retenir, la tête qu’al fait est trop drôle.
    • Et to paman, iel fait quoi ?
    • Ellui, iel est politician : iel vérifie que vous continuez à toustes vous comporter en bans citoyans !
    • Tu es bien naïfive si tu penses qu’en général on se comporte en bans citoyans !
    • Moi, j'ai pas pu parler encore.
    • Vas-y, Ariel·le, on t'écoute.
    • Mi tancle, iel est champian de para hockey.
    • C'est pas un métier, ça, le sport.
    • Oh que si ! Iel s'entraîne dur tous les jours, d'ailleurs sine entraîneureuse est très fier·e d'ellui parce qu'iel est an capitan si engagé·e que son équipe est régulièrement sélectionnée pour les Jeux Paralympiques. Moi, plus tard, j'aimerais aussi être an sportifive de haut niveau, comme ellui.
    • Bien, sur ce, je vous propose à toustes d'aller enfiler vos affaires de sport : on se retrouve dans la salle de gymnastique pour une partie de unihockey.

    Les élèves :

    • Yes!"

    Discussion

    According to linguist Roswitha Fischer, citing Renate Bartsch,[42] the adoption of neologisms into a language's lexicon depends on three factors:

    1. Prestige: The neologism must be championed by a group of influential individuals who hold social, political, and economic power.
    2. Written Usage: The neologism must gain traction in written communication, becoming accepted in literature, media, and formal communication.
    3. Linguistic Contact: The neologism must circulate in areas where multiple dialects and varieties of the language converge, fostering mutual understanding and assimilation.[43]

    Currently, gender-neutral French neologisms lack widespread adoption, even within LGBT and nonbinary communities. Their presence is marginal in written form,[44][45] and their usage in spoken language limited. However, the Internet serves as an area for these neologisms to reach a global audience of Francophone speakers from Africa, America, Europe, and minority language communities all around the world. Additionally, descriptive approaches to language (cf. Le Robert), contrary to prescriptive approaches (cf. L'Académie), have lead to the acceptance of one of them — 'iel' — in written discourse.

    For neologisms to gain wider adoption, they must be learnable and user-friendly. This means they should be easy to understand and easy to remember (due to morphological motivation); easy to pronounce while adhering to the phoneme inventory and phonotactics of the language; familiar to the target audience; and responsive to a genuine need.[43] If these criteria are met, neologisms will start being adopted by avant-garde language users. As these avant-garde figures gather large online communities, the frequency of usage of these neologisms will increase, fostering familiarity among the Francophone community. From then, some of these neologisms could potentially enter the standard vocabulary.

    Main resources

    1. ★La vie en Queer (2018): Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif. Online at: https://lavieenqueer.wordpress.com/2018/07/26/petit-dico-de-francais-neutre-inclusif/.★
    2. Divergenres (2021): Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive. Québec. Online at: https://divergenres.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/guide-grammaireinclusive-final.pdf.
    3. Wiki Trans (2019): Comment parler d'une personne non binaire ? Online at: https://wikitrans.co/2019/12/25/comment-parler-dune-personne-non-binaire/.
    4. Wiki LGBTQIA FR (2023): Néopronoms. Online at: https://lgbtqia.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Neopronoms.
    5. Alpheratz (2018): Genre neutre.TABLEAUX RÉCAPITULATIFS de mots de genre neutre (extraits). Online at: https://www.alpheratz.fr/linguistique/genre-neutre/.

    References

    1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Becquelin, H. (no data): Langage en tout genre. Argument historique. Article on non discriminating language. University of Neuchâtel. Online at: https://www.unine.ch/epicene/home/pourquoi/argument-historique.html (retrieved 12.12.2023).
    2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Viennot, E. (2023): Pour un langage non sexiste ! Les accords égalitaires en français. Online at: https://www.elianeviennot.fr/Langue-accords.html (retrieved 18.12.2023).
    3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Moreau, M.-L. (2019): L’accord de proximité dans l’écriture inclusive. Peut-on utiliser n’importe quel argument ? In: Dister, A./ Piron, S. (eds.): Les discours de référence sur la langue française (Presses de l’Université Saint-Louis), 351–378. 10.4000/books.pusl.26517.
    4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Divergenres (2021): Guide de grammaire neutre et inclusive. Québec. Online at: https://divergenres.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/guide-grammaireinclusive-final.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).
    5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Alchimy (2017): « Le masculin l’emporte sur le féminin » : Bien plus qu’une règle de grammaire. In: Usbek&Rica.
    6. ↑ Tibblin, J./Van De Weijer, J./Granfeldt, J./Gygax, P. (2023): There are more women in joggeur·euses than in joggeurs : On the effects of gender-fair forms on perceived gender ratios in French role nouns. In: J. Fr. Lang. Stud. 33, 28–51. 10.1017/S0959269522000217.
    7. ↑ Heise, E. (2003): Auch einfühlsame Studenten sind Männer: Das generische Maskulinum und die mentale Repräsentation von Personen [Even empathic students are men: The generic masculine and the mental representation of persons]. In: Verhaltenstherapie & Psychosoziale Praxis 35(2), 285–291.
    8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 OMPI (2022): Guide de l’OMPI pour un langage inclusif en français. Online at: https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/women-and-ip/fr/docs/guidelines-inclusive-language.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).
    9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Ménard, J.-S. (2021): Pour un français neutre et une inclusion des personnes non binaires : une entrevue avec Florence Ashley. Longueuil: Cégep Édouard-Montpetit. Online at:https://www.cegepmontpetit.ca/static/uploaded/Files/Cegep/Centre%20de%20reference/Le%20francais%20saffiche/Une-entrevue-avec-Florence-Ashley.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).
    10. ↑ Pascal, G./Boschard, Μ./Cornet, G./Croci, M./Stegmann, N. (2021): Les outils - la (re)féminisation. Langage inclusif. Online at: https://tube.switch.ch/videos/0xwYktNzRp, 00:50 (retrieved 12.12.2023).
    11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Université Laval (2021): Guide de rédaction inclusive. Online at: https://www.ulaval.ca/sites/default/files/EDI/Guide_redaction_inclusive_DC_UL.pdf (retrieved 12.12.2023).
    12. ↑ EPFL (2023): L’accord de proximité. Online at:https://www.epfl.ch/about/equality/fr/langage-inclusif/guide/principes/accord/ (retrieved 12.12.2023).
    13. ↑ Anglade, J. (1931): Grammaire élémentaire de l'ancien français. Paris: Armand Colin, 157–196.
    14. ↑ Marchello-Nizia, C. (1989): Le neutre et l’impersonnel. In: Linx 21, 173–179. 10.3406/linx.1989.1139.
    15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Ashley, F. (2019): Les personnes non-binaires en français : une perspective concernée et militante. In: H-France Salon 11(14).
    16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Alpheratz (2018): Genre neutre.TABLEAUX RÉCAPITULATIFS de mots de genre neutre (extraits). Online at: https://www.alpheratz.fr/linguistique/genre-neutre/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).
    17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 La vie en Queer (2018): Petit dico de français neutre/inclusif. Online at: https://lavieenqueer.wordpress.com/2018/07/26/petit-dico-de-francais-neutre-inclusif/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).
    18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Wiki Trans (2019): Comment parler d'une personne non binaire ? Online at: https://wikitrans.co/2019/12/25/comment-parler-dune-personne-non-binaire/ (retrieved 15.12.2023).
    19. ↑ Radio Télévision Suisse (2021): L'entrée du pronom "iel" dans Le Robert provoque des remous. Online at: https://www.rts.ch/info/monde/12651159-lentree-du-pronom-iel-dans-le-robert-provoque-des-remous.html (retrieved 15.12.2023).
    20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Michel, L./Levet, D. (2017): La catégorie de la personne. Saint-Denis: MSH Paris Nord. Online at: https://web.ac-reims.fr/casnav/enfants_nouv_arrives/aide_a_la_scolarisation/LGIDF/LGIDF.LA%20PERSONNE.02.03.17.pdf (retrieved 15.12.2023).
    21. ↑ Wiki LGBTQIA FR (2021): Al/lan. Online at: https://lgbtqia.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Al/lan (retrieved 11.01.2024).
    22. ↑ Spencer-Hall, A./Gutt, B. (eds)(2021): Trans and Genderqueer Subjects in Medieval Hagiography. Amsterdam University Press. DOI: 10.2307/j.ctv1ks0cj4. French cultural and linguistic translation from Maillet C. online at: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/88291459/Maillet_Trad_Terminologie_20pour_20les_20e_3Ftudes_20trans_20et_20non_20binaire_2021-libre.pdf?1657042694=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DTerminologie_pour_les_etudes_trans_et_no.pdf&Expires=1704980549&Signature=aHUqRbpWbQ8K1jtiqQoQV6cgYM~YTcaZmgDhb8U2KTMDILHd8PhO9peeR0SLWNPOlX5RCo1E7aQcCdQzxBeyKmzPDgp9QbYArmWmHSmtOH-QZRUvrjeFeEZSp6qzmIGyZD3ebRNlOH5aMrJViI1eQ32o53Bw2ghAge~D9upEEx~KXPQe9FIUArfFQo0ylInGK9jqh-OM60Qz2pXRc8llTJ3ovtnVPiL2cu2l1mcfBODJyb~IZZZ1MPczrVu-79y1RjeMr8f5BGtMbRD5nv8jtmLex6vWmIl1svtYZTpOaFPy8LwWBa70VogboWPqfAoOL1~CDZPuhlGuDmDErNknDA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA[Dead link] (retrieved 11.01.2024).
    23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Campbell, L. (1998): Historical Linguistics. An Introduction. First ed. Cambridge/Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
    24. ↑ Sicard, E./Menin-Sicard, A./Rousteau, G. (2022): Oppositions de voyelles orales et nasales : identification des formants selon le genre. INSA Toulouse: ffhal-03826558v2f.
    25. ↑ Rice, K. (2007): Markedness in phonology. In: The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology, 79–98. 10.1017/cbo9780511486371.005.
    26. ↑ Carvalho, J. (2023): From binary features to elements: Implications for markedness theory and phonological acquisition. In: Radical: A Journal of Phonology 3, 346–384.
    27. ↑ Duolingo Wiki: Swedish Skills. Possessives. Online at:https://duolingo.fandom.com/wiki/Swedish_Skill:Possessives (18.12.2023).
    28. ↑ Norwegian University of Science and Technology (no data): 8 Grammar. Possessives. Online at: https://www.ntnu.edu/now/8/grammar (retrieved 18.12.2023).
    29. ↑ Klaudia, K. (2017): Schweizerdeutsch. Schlüssel zu den Übungen. Online at: https://silo.tips/download/schweizerdeutsch-schlssel-zu-den-bungen (retrieved 18.12.2023).
    30. ↑ McGibney, S. (2023): What Percentage of the World’s Population is Bilingual? Introduction to Bilingualism: Exploring the Global Language Diversity. Online at: https://www.newsdle.com/blog/world-population-bilingual-percentage (retrieved 18.12.2023).
    31. ↑ Van Dijk, C./Van Wonderen, E./Koutamanis, E./Kootstra, G.J./Dijkstra, T./Unsworth, S. (2022): Cross-linguistic influence in simultaneous and early sequential bilingual children: a meta-analysis. In: J. Child Lang. 49, 897–929. 10.1017/S0305000921000337.
    32. ↑ Van Dijk, C./Dijkstra, T./Unsworth, S. (2022): Cross-linguistic influence during online sentence processing in bilingual children. In: Bilingualism 25, 691–704. 10.1017/S1366728922000050.
    33. ↑ Liam (2023): Coming out day. 11.10.2023. Mon vécu de coming out. In: ekivock.nb (Instagram account). Online at: https://www.instagram.com/p/CyP-j_Tobbj/?img_index=3.
    34. ↑ Doctoresse Joséphine Tornay. Online at: https://cm-latour.ch/team/josephine-tornay-medecine-interne-generale/ (retrieved 18.12.2023). 'Doctoresse' is a very common Swiss French denomination for female doctors.
    35. ↑ Viennot, E. (2023): Pour un langage non sexiste ! Acteurice, visiteureuse... Des néologismes de plus en plus employés. Online at: https://www.elianeviennot.fr/Langue-mots.html (retrieved 15.12.2023).
    36. ↑ Brauer, M./Landry, M. (2008): Un ministre peut-il tomber enceinte? L'impact du générique masculin sur les représentations mentales. In: L'Année Psychol. 108, 243–272. 10.4074/S0003503308002030.
    37. ↑ Xiao, H./Strickland, B./Peperkamp, S. (2023): How fair is gender-fair language? Insights from gender ratio estimations in French. In: J. Lang. Soc. Psychol. 42, 82–106. 10.1177/0261927X221084643.
    38. ↑ Stahlberg, D./Sczesny, S./Braun, F. (2001): Name your favorite musician: effects of masculine generics and of their alternatives in German. In: J. Lang. Soc. Psychol. 20, 464–469. 10.1177/0261927X01020004004.
    39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Spinelli, E./Chevrot, J.-P./Varnet, L. (2023): Neutral is not fair enough: testing the efficiency of different language gender-fair strategies. In: Front. Psychol. 14. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1256779.
    40. ↑ CNRTL (2012): -EUX, élément formant. Online at: https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/-eux (retrieved 15.12.2023).
    41. ↑ Wiki LGBTQIA FR (2023): Néopronoms. Online at: https://lgbtqia.fandom.com/fr/wiki/Neopronoms (retrieved 11.01.2024).
    42. ↑ Bartsch, R. (1987): Sprachnormen: Theorie und Praxis: Studienausgabe. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. 10.1515/9783110935875.
    43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Fischer, R. (1998): Lexical Change in Present-Day English. A Corpus-Based Study of the Motivation, Institutionalization, and Productivity of Creative Neologism. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
    44. ↑ Café aux étoiles. maison d'édition sereine et onirique (no data): Littérature. Online at: https://cafeauxetoiles.fr/litterature/ (retrieved 18.12.2023).
    45. ↑ Les Ourses à plumes. Webzine féministe (2022): Les elfes noirs ne sont jamais noirs (1) : enjeux de la représentation dans les fictions de l'imaginaire. Online at: https://lesoursesaplumes.info/tag/une/ (retrieved 18.12.2023).
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